Keywords

1.1 Introduction

The extent to which a building is sustainably designed, the climatic condition of the geographical location of a building and the age of building are influencing factors of the energy system and its efficiency. Hence, the consumption of energy in a building is basically characterized by the extent to which energy is lost through the building envelope which can be said to be the physical structural form of the building, and the extent at which energy usage is required by dwellers for their overall physical comfort [1, 2]. Basically, buildings are responsible for about 40% energy usage, 25% water usage and 40% absorption of global natural resources which in turn emits about one-third of Green-House Gas (GHG), [1, 3]. For sustainability to be achieved within the built environment, there must be a balance between energy consumption which translates into cost implication on dwellers and its ecological effect [4].

On the premise that the housing sector is one significant energy user, it is imperative to understand the rate of energy consumption and its requirements on each building to enhance energy efficiency, cost minimisation and environmental sustainability. With the United Kingdom having one of the oldest existing buildings in the European Union (EU), wherein many of such buildings were constructed in Victorian times [5]; this research was necessitated to investigate the rate at which energy is consumed, the level of physical comfort derived by dwellers at different times of the year owing to climatic condition with regards to energy consumption, the cost of energy and its impact on dwellers.

Though, several research have discussed factors or drivers influencing dwellers’ energy consumption rate in several parts of the world [6, 7]; it is important to note that the study on the cost impact of energy consumption and the drivers of the rate of energy consumption as it relates to dwellers’ physical comfort in private residential buildings in the West Midlands region of United Kingdom is lacking. Hence, the reason for this research in the face of increasing energy cost which can be seen as presented in Fig. 1.1.

Fig. 1.1
A clustered 3-D bar chart of bills per year in pounds versus years from 1974 to 2019. It plots 2 bars for gas and electricity. The highest values are 750 pounds of gas in 2013 and 650 pounds of electricity in 2019. Values are approximated.

Increase in energy cost from 1974–2019

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In the UK, Energy Performance Certificates (EPCs), is a pointer to the energy cost expectation of buildings with respect to physical comfort attainment by dwellers. This is because a top-rated categorized building is indicative of a sustainable dwelling, thereby requiring minimum energy consumption which will lead to minimal cost impact. EPC rating ranges from 0 to 100, with residential buildings categorized from A to G [8]. Table 1.1 shows the range and categories for ratings based on EPC classification.

Table 1.1 Energy performance certificates (EPCs) classification
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Undoubtedly, the quest toward energy efficiency goes beyond cost maximisation and enhances residents’ healthy living and well-being. An inefficient energy residence is a breeding ground for respiratory infections, cardiovascular, hypothermia, heart attacks and mental problems. An energy-inefficient building is prone to cold, leading to condensation and moulds and can contribute to the wheezing of older people and young children [10]. Subsequently, energy consumption in residential buildings is not solely attributed to the age of the building but also factors such as the attainment of the functional requirement of the building, technical characterisation and residents’ socioeconomic attributes relating to lifestyle are also indicators [11]. Dwellers’ living pattern and behaviour contributes significantly to the extent of energy consumption with an estimate accounting for 30% heating energy consumption, and 50% cooling energy consumption specifically in low-income residents [12].

Considering the high cost of procuring energy, the time is now to improve the functional requirement of buildings globally in relation to thermal performance to enhance dwellers’ comfort and healthy living with economic energy consumption. Nowadays, design and construction of new buildings are currently focusing on high energy performance with minimum dependence on consumption. Thus, buildings should be designed based on microclimate considerations [13]. These echoes widespread calls for a ‘green economic stimulus’ within which the home energy efficiency programme plays a significant part [9]. Such schemes would have substantial health benefits and address the UK's long-term problem of excess winter deaths exacerbated by cold homes. Figure 1.2 shows a breakdown of energy consumption of various sectors, with keen interest in the building sector which comprises of residential and commercial, with the micro distribution of energy utilization well-presented [14].

Fig. 1.2
A combination of pie and bar charts. The pie chart has 3 partitions. Industry, 32%. Transportation, 28%. Buildings, 40%. The bar chart classifies buildings as 22% residential and 18% commercial with 10 bars on each. The peak values are 31% for heating in residential and 26% for lights in the commercial.

Source De Simone [14]

Breakdown of energy consumption by sectors.

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1.2 Methodology

The methodology adopted in this research presentation on ascertaining the impact of cost based on energy consumption by residential dwellers are drawn from secondary and primary data sources. The secondary data is based on updated published scholarly literature, and the primary data is based on interviews conducted with residents or dwellers of private residential buildings in the West Midlands region of United Kingdom. The outcome of the interviews was synthesize using qualitative analytical approach. The interview applied a purposive technique targeted at obtaining detailed experiences from residents or dwellers of the selected buildings. Summarily, 20 private residential buildings were selected based on several characteristics or elements that distinguished them based on energy consumption drivers, dwellers’ physical comfort and building functionality. Also, cost implication was put into consideration.

Going forward, the interview data were synthesized using content analysis in consonance with [14]; wherein the analytical processes allow for identifying, organising, describing, and coding textual materials. Content analysis also provides flexibility and a more accessible form of research. The data were analysed to investigate the energy cost impact of the private residential buildings selected. Subsequently, all audio recording was transcribed verbatim, and lines of text were numbered. Once transcribed, the data was coded and inputted into NVivo computer software. The codes were developed by selecting themes directly related to the study's aim and objectives. Below are some of the probing questions and themes generated for the study interviews.

1.3 Results and Discussion

Research questions:

Questions 1a: Is the house you live in warm enough to make you feel comfortable during winter?

Response from Interviewees.

“–- My house does not warm up properly, you have to keep heating and it is costing a lot in energy bills….“ -Terrace Tennant 1, Birmingham.

In follow-up and probing further.

Questions 1a: What could be the contributing factors for your house not being warm enough? “–- first of all, our property is not a recent day design; it was built in the 1920s, it has an EPC rating of E, and it does not have good insulation. These I believe could be one main contributing factor to the circulatory heating duration leading to high energy consumption and huge cost demand…” Terrace Tennant 1, Birmingham.

Questions 1b: How much does your average yearly bill for energy cost?

“–- It costs us £2200 for electricity and gas per year. The prices have doubled over a period.

Questions 2a: What is the frequency or duration within which the heating system of your house gets warm enough to your desired expectation and living comfort?

“My experience with respect to the optimal heating duration of my house depends on factors that I cannot really explain. This is because in most cases it takes much longer for the heating impact to be felt. Sometimes it takes up to an hour for the house to get warm to the temperature that residents will feel it” Three-bedroom Flat owner 2, Coventry.

Questions 2b: Are you invariably saying that your house heating system does not pick and heat up the house within a specific duration?

“I would not be wrong if I say so, as the minimum time the heating system has been felt is mostly after an hour or more. Even at that, not every section of the house gets the warm temperature as expected” Detached house tenant 1, Wolverhampton.

Questions 3a: How would you describe the consistency of your bill for each month?

“Hmmm! The bill from E.ON Next does not come uniformly, but some level of variation is usually noticed. This variation is always on the increasing side”. Terrace Tennant 1, Birmingham.

Questions 3b: Would you rather say your billing cost is because of the EPC rating and category of your building?

“Ehhh, rating is a technical word, and since I am not a professional or knowledgeable in that trade, I can say the condition of the building could be responsible for the billing cost. However, I cannot conclude about the views that bills are tempered with” Semi-detached house owner 1, Birmingham.

Questions 4a: How would you describe the impact of your energy billing cost on your income?

“It will be pitiable to explain the impact of the cost of my energy bills. This is because I spend a huge percentage of my income on energy bill deductions.” Terrace Tennant 2, Coventry.

Questions 4b: Could your energy cost be linked to the age of your residence, considering the cost impact as presented above?

“Oh yes, it would not be out of place to say that the age of the building is another major factor for the cost of my energy bill. But I would appreciate any means by which this cost impact can be reduced”. Three-bedroom Flat owner 2, Coventry.

1.4 Discussion

Despite the lack of literature directly related to private tenants and owners’ responses to high energy cost experiences, the interview results show that the type of residential buildings lived by the tenants are responsible for increased energy costs to a great extent. Amongst the answers given by the respondents or interviewees, high energy cost contributes to them falling into fuel poverty as they spend a higher proportion of their income on utility bills. Of course, the building type lived by the dwellers contributes to the situation; however, efforts should be made to prioritise energy standards in private houses. Renovation, refurbishment and retrofitting of older buildings present the opportunity to improve its energy efficiency hence reducing energy cost and carbon footprint. This idea is in consonance with [13]; where buildings are focusing on sustainable design and construction to reduce over dependence on high energy consumption since the age of the building which can be linked to building functionality are contributing factors to the usage or consumption of energy.

On top of all the payment issues, energy prices have risen since Brexit, starting from October 2021, the energy price cap set by Ofgem no longer applied, leaving energy companies to set up their prices. The respondents interviewed have also stated that their cost of living increased since the price hike, leading them to adapt coping strategies. Table 1.2 below illustrates key themes featuring the interview participant's experience. In view of the increasing price of energy, Fig. 1.1; is a true representation of this experience.

Table 1.2 Key themes from the interview
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Findings from the secondary source of data extracted from scholarly published literature reveal that housing technical, socioeconomic status of dwellers, demography, dwellers’ preference and behaviour, climatic condition, and geographic factor are residence energy consumption determinants. In essence, these factors and more were also observed from the interview as pointed out by the interviewees expressing the cost impact of energy consumption as residents or dwellers.

1.5 Conclusion

In general, the building sector is a major consumer of energy with complex drivers and influencing factors leading to this consumption of energy with huge cost impact on dwellers. Also, owning and renting private homes, especially the ones built in Victoria times, contributes to financial impact due to high energy costs with associated problem of ‘heat and eat’ dilemma. The interview result clearly shows the detrimental effect of living in private homes that are prohibitively expensive to heat because of high energy costs pointing to inefficient homes. According to the participants, living in inadequate homes with poor insulation is depressing, stressful and damaging to their mental and physical health. Hence, spending more of their budget on energy than on households with better-insulated homes means that any increase in energy bills by the suppliers will have a profound effect. In essence, the government must step in toward allocating funding for private homes to improve their energy efficiency and EPC rating in attaining sustainable state and achieving functional buildings. Similarly, to help tenants, private landlords should register their properties with the local government to ensure they have an EPC rating of C and above.