Keywords

1.1 Introduction

Reindeer husbandry is the primary livelihood for over 24 Indigenous peoples in the Circumpolar North and involves close to 100,000 Indigenous peoples and about 2.5 million domestic reindeer (Degteva et al., 2017). Climate change is now evident in the traditional areas of reindeer husbandry in the Circumpolar North (Chaps. 2, 7 and 8). Furthermore, the loss of grazing areas combined with the effect of increased air temperature challenges the Indigenous peoples economically and their cultural practices (Chaps. 3 and 9). Reindeer husbandry should therefore develop its own adaptation strategies (Chaps. 2 and 5) where the value of traditional knowledge is recognized and where the reindeer herder knowledge is actively used in the management and control (Chap. 4). It is important that all available forms of knowledge are included when developing the reindeer husbandry’s adaptation strategies (Chaps. 2 and 6). In Norway, there are barriers to the use of traditional knowledge for nature management and in the development of reindeer husbandry, which must be resolved (Chap. 3). Adaptation to future climate change in reindeer husbandry areas requires training of reindeer husbandry youth related to long-term sustainable thinking which should include a future Master program in reindeer husbandry (Chaps. 2, 5 and 6). Protection of reindeer pastures is the most important adaptation strategy during the ongoing climate change (Chaps. 2 and 9).

Much of this knowledge is disappearing if it is not documented and used (Chaps. 3, 5 and 6). We propose a new approach to the sustainability of reindeer husbandry, where we define the limitations and opportunities of reindeer husbandry based on traditional knowledge (Chap. 4). We have identified several limitations that are important for future reindeer husbandry with a focus on adaptability (Chaps. 2 and 3). The use of Sámi snow concepts mirrors reindeer herders’ traditional knowledge of the management of the herd on snow-covered ground and how herders deal with these complex systems (Chaps. 3 and 4).

It is important that now we do everything to increase the adaptive capacity of reindeer husbandry to the effect of global warming so that reindeer husbandry remains an ecologically and economically robust civilization in the future as well (Chap. 10). Erosion of the reindeer husbandry knowledge base might have affected the reindeer husbandry vulnerability to change (Chap. 4). It is therefore important to build a bridge between academia and Indigenous societies so that the adaptation strategies follow Arctic realities (Chaps. 2, 3 and 5). The environment, climate and biodiversity are changing in the Circumpolar North in ways that are unique in the long history of the region, challenging traditional lifestyles, well-being, food security, and posing a legitimate concern for the future of traditional Indigenous economies (Chaps. 7, 8 and 9). This book analyzes adaptation to change essential for reindeer husbandry (Figs. 1.1, 1.2a, 1.2b, 1.3, 1.4, 1.5, 1.6, 1.7 and 1.8).

Fig. 1.1
A globe classifies the land under forested, agricultural, treeless, ice and snow in Russia. The areas are highlighted under reindeer husbandry, wild reindeer, and E A L L U activity location.

Map of the Circumpolar reindeer husbandry pastures and Indigenous Peoples discussed in the book

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Fig. 1.2a
A photograph of mountains mostly covered with ice with patches of vegetation in between.

Illustration of change in reindeer herders’ pastures and migration routes. Photo of the vegetation at the Guovdageaidnu river, Norway in 1882 (First International Polar Year). (Photo: Sophus Tromholdt, University Library, University of Bergen)

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Fig. 1.2b
A photograph depicts land with dry and barren shrubs surrounding a water body.

Illustration of change in reindeer herders’ pastures and migrations routes. Photo of the vegetation at the Guovdageaidnu river, Norway in 2021. (Photo from the site as in Fig. 1.2a). (Photo: Svein Disch Mathiesen)

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Fig. 1.3
Label: Fig. 1.3label: Fig. 1.3A photograph of De. Fikret Berkes and Dr. Inger Marie G Eira sitting on the snow-covered land engaged in a discussion. The distance depicts a herd of reindeer.

Ways of knowing about snow change: Dr. Fikret Berkes University of Manitoba, Canada and Dr. Inger Marie G Eira, Sámi University of Applied Science, in front of the reindeer herd in Guovdageaidnu, Norway (2009) discussing the role of Sámi reindeer traditional knowledge in the future governance of reindeer husbandry. (Photo: Svein Disch Mathiesen)

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Fig. 1.4
A photograph of a woman milking the reindeer.

Milking of reindeer has been an important way to transfer Even reindeer herders’ traditional knowledge from generation to generation. Even reindeer herder Maria Pogodaeva, Republic of Sakha (Yakutia) demonstrates traditional knowledge of milking in the Verkhoyansk Mountains (1990). (Photo: Svein Disch Mathiesen)

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Fig. 1.5
A photograph depicts a conical hut of the Nenets Indigenous peoples. A woman and a child are standing outside the house. A few sleds are parked on the snow-covered ground with reindeer skins spread over them.

Family-based reindeer husbandry of the Nenets Indigenous peoples in Yamal-Nenets Autonomous Okrug is nested within a unique system of traditional knowledge and private ownership of reindeer. North of Nadym, Yamal-Nenets Autonomous Okrug, Russia (1997). (Photo: Svein Disch Mathiesen)

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Fig. 1.6
A photograph of a herd of reindeer on a grassland moving ahead in the same direction. A few reindeer sleds are loaded with things.

Nenets Indigenous reindeer herders on the Yamal peninsula maintain long migration routes (700 km) as part of their adaptation to seasonal pastures use. The photo shows a reindeer husbandry brigade outside Bovanenkovo in Yamal crossing the gas pipeline to Europe (2009). (Photo: Svein Disch Mathiesen)

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Fig. 1.7
A photograph of a petroglyph with images of reindeer and fences marked.

The petroglyphs of reindeer, people, and fences outside Alta, Finnmark, Norway are believed to have been made in the period from approx. year 5000 BC and express a knowledge perspective between people, pastures, and animals which hitherto remains to be analyzed. (Photo: Svein Disch Mathiesen)

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Fig. 1.8
A photograph depicts an aged native woman marking the ear of a reindeer as a young man holds the reindeer. She puts a tag numbered 61.

Karen Anna L Gaup, 84 years old, marking her reindeer, June 2022. (Photo: Mia Carine Eira)

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1.2 Indigenous Voices from the Circumpolar North

1.2.1 Maria Pogodaeva

Even reindeer herder, Republic of Sakha (Yakutia), born in 1951, 71 years old. Deputy of the Supreme Council of the USSR, YASSR, Honored Worker of Agriculture of the Russian Federation, Republic of Sakha (Yakutia) Excellence in Education of the Republic of Sakha (Yakutia), Vice President of the Association of World Reindeer Herders in 1997–2009, Head of the nomadic family and Indigenous Evens tribal community named after P.E. Pogodaev.

  • Reindeer husbandry today is no longer the foundation in some regions of the circumpolar civilization of the Indigenous peoples of the Russian Federation and has practically been lost

The reason is that, since the penetration of other peoples into the respective territories of the 16 reindeer herding peoples back in the sixteenth century, no one has ever asked them anything. Reindeer herding nations have never been treated as equal partners. Other nations made decisions that destroyed their traditional way of life: forced transition to a settled way of life, destruction of small settlements, separation of children from their parents, deprivation of ownership of reindeer through collectivization, loss of traditional knowledge, language, and culture.

Reindeer husbandry can still be restored. Yet this process requires active, free, and meaningful participation of the reindeer herding peoples and recognition of their rights:

  • gratuitous use of lands that they traditionally occupied and owned.

  • exclusive rights to herd reindeer, which they traditionally practiced.

  • rights to own reindeer as an incentive to facilitate reindeer herding.

  • the right to a traditional way of life and recognition of a year-round nomadic lifestyle for all members of the reindeer herders’ families as a prerequisite for reindeer herding preservation and development.

  • sustainable development of reindeer husbandry, aimed at continuous improvement of the herders’ welfare and fair income distribution.

  • equal opportunities for the access of reindeer herding peoples to basic resources, education, health care, nutrition, housing, and technological advances with respect to the nomadic way of life.

Traditional reindeer husbandry has been successfully preserved only in Yamal, Russia because the Nenets have always owned many animals.

Until recently, in Russia, the fact that reindeer herders own reindeer privately is considered a barrier to the reindeer husbandry development. Private owners and households do not receive subsidies while collective units receive funding.

Experts write that the transfer of reindeer herds to public ownership was very painful for the peoples of the North during collectivization, especially at the initial stage. They passively resisted, but gradually got used to it. This is not true. Collectivization caused enormous moral damage, from which the peoples of the North did not recover even after several generations. My grandfather was very upset about the transfer of his reindeer to the collective unit. It was not a voluntary act; he was forced to give the reindeer away. Earlier, my uncle’s family was deprived of all their reindeer and had to leave. It was forbidden to even just communicate with them, let alone help in any way. Either a hundred years ago or today, reindeer herders want to own their reindeer and have as many animals as possible.

After the adoption of federal laws to protect the rights of the Indigenous peoples of the North, the number of private reindeer in Russia has increased. Today, privately-owned animals account for almost 59% of the total available livestock.

Reindeer husbandry in Russia is widespread in the most remote, hard-to-reach places, and a nomadic lifestyle using reindeer is the only way to maintain reindeer husbandry. All family members should migrate with the herd: parents, grandparents, children, schools, kindergartens, teachers, paramedics, and mobile slaughterhouses.

This type of reindeer husbandry is certainly expensive, but it addressed the issues of national security. It provides for the production of environmentally friendly food, protection and use of the Arctic territories, and preservation of the Indigenous peoples of the Russian Federation.

Today in the Republic of Sakha (Yakutia), reindeer herders restored the traditional practice of reindeer husbandry through the bottom-up approach. Reindeer herding communities and Indigenous peoples were represented in the legislative and executive authorities, and NGOs, therefore, took part in decision-making.

A total of 63 TTNUss (Territories of Traditional Nature Use) have been established in all national naslegs (settlements), which makes more than a half of the territory of the Sakha Republic. Schools and kindergartens do not operate between April and September when children join their families at the remote pastures. Children help their parents and receive a salary from the budget. The state allocates funds for wages, transportation of children, construction of corrals, fences, and housing on the nomadic reindeer routes for all forms of reindeer ownership. An International Center for Nomadic Schools has been established at the branch of the Federal Institute of Native Languages. The plans include the creation of the International Nomadic Center for the Education of Reindeer Peoples of the Republic of Sakha (Yakutia).

There are already communities that offer live reindeer for sale. Public organizations of reindeer herders – the Union of Reindeer Herders and the Union of Communities – have been in operation for many years. Authorities allocate grants to support reindeer herders’ dynasties and introduce holidays such as the Reindeer Herder Day. An annual event is largely celebrated in many regions engaging all members of the reindeer herders’ families to participate in reindeer races, sports competitions, cultural events, conferences, etc.

There are many positive changes in the development of reindeer husbandry, but for sustainable development, there is a need to change the paradigm from paternalism to partnership. There is a need to use the knowledge of reindeer herders to develop their way of life.

1.2.2 Dr. Sergey Kharuchi

Yamal Nenets AO, from Nenets reindeer husbandry, born in 1950, 72 years old, elected President of the Association of World Reindeer Herders (2017)

  • Reindeer herding culture and civilization is a unique phenomenon

Reindeer herding culture, reindeer herding civilization, and Indigenous peoples, together with their reindeer, have learned over the centuries to adapt to all the natural disasters, climate changes, and natural phenomena. Therefore, there should not be much concern here. Today, however, reindeer herders have to coexist with man-made, European civilization. Therefore, it is necessary to provide countermeasures that would help the Indigenous population to adapt to the ongoing processes. Indigenous peoples are used to the life on their pastures, fishing grounds, and ancestral lands, which are usually rich in natural resources. The economies of countries and regions flourish through the development of natural resources in the areas inhabited by the Indigenous peoples, the primary land users. Time and again, reindeer herders understand the necessity and importance of their countries’ development and cede their pastures for industrial development, to the detriment of their families and clans. They are forced to move from their own lands and abandon the best pastures. Finding other grazing lands is always problematic and difficult. It always takes time and effort. In this regard, I think it is necessary for national governments and organizations of Indigenous peoples to act together and develop measures that would not be detrimental to the Indigenous populations. Coordinated actions promote sustainable development of the Arctic territories. This book pinpoints the perspective and vision of the Indigenous peoples to promote adaptation in the face of a warming climate and environmental change.

Each author offers their vision based on the specific features of their territories. Therefore, it is not possible – and not necessary – to develop a uniform ‘fit-for-all’ approach. Each national state and each region have its legislation, practices of survival in natural conditions, and unique climatic and geographical features. Therefore, a case-by-case framework that would accumulate recommendations for national governments and authorities seems a more feasible solution. The regions will eventually adapt these to the needs of Indigenous peoples. Industrial companies should also attend to this because the state alone cannot tackle these issues. Moreover, addressing these issues requires a significant amount of time and financing. All stakeholders interested in achieving sustainable development of their regions and creating a favorable environment for the traditional Indigenous livelihoods must act soon.

1.2.3 Karen Anna L Gaup

Sámi reindeer herder, born 1938, 84 years old

  • It’s so much fun with reindeer

In the future, I expect the situation with reindeer husbandry to improve as it has already become better. We need politicians who understand the Sámi and especially reindeer husbandry, which is difficult to understand.

Recently, I was visited by the Oslo journalists, who wanted to interview me. However, they failed to do so because they did not understand my way of life. For example, I wear Sámi clothes every day, and I have never had Norwegian clothes. Nowadays in the Sámi village of Kautokeino, one hardly sees people in Sámi clothes on weekdays. Once I was in the hotel restaurant here in the village. There were a lot of people at the hotel, but only one person, besides me, would wear Sámi clothes. It struck me that at a party with so many people only two were wearing Sámi clothes. Not so long ago, at the fair in Kautokeino, some people would wear Norwegian clothes and sell Sámi clothes.

I think it is difficult to get young people interested in traditional clothes. Today I teach courses on traditional sewing to the girls in our Siida. But I see it as a good sign. In my youth, I used to sew myself and now I design courses for the girls. Today, there is so much else to do besides sewing. Gadgets, and devices take too much time. It can affect reindeer husbandry.

Despite the changes in the way I dress, I am positive about the future, especially when I think about the future of reindeer husbandry. Our reindeer husbandry community is affected by all the new things in Norwegian society. The youth also do not wear Sámi clothes while working in the mountains, but I wear a beaska and a gákti when I’m in the mountains. Sometimes, when I feed the reindeer herd, it gets too hot, so I take the beaska off. Modern clothes are not so comfortable to work in. I see how costumes have altered over the years. The reindeer do not like the new clothes that produce too much noise. Traditional Sámi clothes are silent. Yet today, it is easier to get hold of Norwegian clothes than Sámi clothes. The new ‘plastic’ clothes have come to stay. However, we must look ahead and move forward. One must not be so negative as to believe that the world would just perish tomorrow.

In 1958, no reindeer feeding was available, and the grazing was poor even back in the 1950s. Today, we can feed the reindeer. I see it as a future for the reindeer husbandry. Feeding is the best thing that has happened: you feed the animals and all reindeer can survive. The weather is so unstable now, we cannot do anything about that. First, it is mild in winter, then it freezes and then there is a layer of crust. The Ministry of Agriculture agreed that feeding should be free and subsidized by the state.

Modern reindeer husbandry is experiencing both pitfalls and advances. Unlike in the past, it does not take much time to build up the herd anymore, and it is easier to get hold of the reindeer. We must maintain the reindeer number which is decided by the state. It is my responsibility as a reindeer owner to keep the herd alive, even if the expenses increase enormously.

The modern herd structure has a large share of females. With the better supplement feeding of females, we have to slaughter more of the calves. Some reindeer grazing districts have high calf numbers. When there are 93% females and 7% males in the herd, all old females are kept alive. In this case, the herder would only slaughter the calves. The state subsidy should also apply to other animals, not just calves. If the older Sámi reindeer herders had seen the current herd structure, they would have torn their hair out. Today’s youth and Norwegians, in general, do not know what a good herd looked like before. They know little about what it should look like today. Sámi reindeer husbandry and clothing have changed. Both are changing quickly as does the rest of society. I think the state is willing to help with regard to supplementary feeding because they think we would accept less grazing area. It’s so much fun with reindeer! On my birthdayFootnote 1 I would always go to the herd. When I am with the reindeer, I am calm, and I feel harmony with nature. It is so exciting to go into the reindeer herd even if you are not going to do anything there. Observing and recognizing the reindeer is fun. Observing how the calf follows the female is important. I would never ever give away my reindeer earmark. The day I no longer have reindeer would mean it is no longer fun. The state understands that they must support reindeer husbandry, and politicians are getting better and better.

1.2.4 Johan Mathis Turi

Sámi reindeer herder, born 1952, 68 years old. Founding president of the Association of World Reindeer Herders, first Chair of the Board of International Centre for Reindeer Husbandry, and the first Secretary-General of World Reindeer Herders, former vice-president of Norwegian Sámi Reindeer Herders Association.

Traditional leadership and management system in the Sámi reindeer husbandry.Footnote 2 As far as I know, there is no documentation about leadership and the traditional system. From my own experiences working with reindeer, I will try to define what is Sámi leadership and management system, and what is the philosophy behind it. I would say the system is a horizontal leadership, it’s not my words, it was a very successful Swedish businessman who introduced it, named Jan Carlzon. He was a leader of Scandinavian Airlines. As he defined it, it’s a leadership and management system that is transmitted into the traditional reindeer husbandry. Because it’s opposite to the ordinary leadership and management system where you have one boss on the top and workers who follow his orders. So, instead, you give people responsibility and authority; and authority is very important. In my opinion, it is the only system that functions in reindeer husbandry where you have unpredictable situations with the weather, grazing, the environment change, and so on. So, let’s see how it functions in practice. I have a story from my childhood. I was a little boy, maybe 8 or 9 years old. And at that time, we had been out. It was September or October. We had a family camp up on the tundra. We herded reindeer every day, 24 h a day and 7 days a week. In the daytime, we would bring reindeer into the reindeer herd into the family camp. And then we would start milking females; and of course, it was very boring for a little child. But then one day, one morning the herd was delayed. We were looking for the herd, it had been rainy and foggy in there, and we could not hear any bells or any dogs, nothing. The elders started to be worried as my mother said if it went for too long, they would not be milking the females because the calves would suck it. So, one of my cousins said okay, he would go and look for the herd and he disappeared. After approximately one hour or one and a half hours, we could hear the herd was coming and he conveyed the herd alone; he told me that when he went out to find the herd, it was gathered, and the herders had their rest. So, he only took the herd and brought it into a family camp. After 1 h, the herders came. There were two of my sisters and two of my cousins. Four girls. And of course, they were wet and, they were tired, and they both were very sad. And when I recognized that, of course, I was laughing, but then it was recognized by my father and my uncle, the elders in the herd and in this family group. They were also very sad. And they said to my cousin: “you’ll never do this again, you are old enough to understand that, to know not to understand, but to know that herder, who has the herd, is the boss. It’s a boss and you are not allowed to take away the herd before the herders give you permission. What if there were no elder reindeer, the herd could have been lost today”. And of course, this is very important. Even I, as a child, understood why it was so important. With horizontal leadership, the herders have authority, all authority when they herd reindeer. So that was a very good day when I learned something. And I remind myself of this all the time.

1.3 Adaptation to Changing Arctic in Reindeer Husbandry

Adaptations are reflected in a rich vocabulary of Sámi peoples about ecosystems health and integrity in the understanding of snow, reindeer, and environmental factors (Chaps. 2 and 4). Adaptation knowledge is nested in and governed within the Indigenous society and is based on Indigenous peoples’ traditional knowledge, perspectives, and insights and in this book we discuss different definition of adaptation (Chap. 2). Some regions of reindeer husbandry are close to their tipping points and already experienced loss of adaptive capacity and consequently reached its tipping point (Chaps. 2 and 7). It is therefore worth noting that the use of terms like ‘overgrazing’ has been debated within a reindeer herding context (Chap. 10). Unlike the dominant point of view blaming irresponsible reindeer herders for the depletion of pastures, chap. 10 see the problem as an institutional one – the result of public policies that created wrong incentives for reindeer herding entrepreneurs in recent decades. It would be immoral to assign the solution to the problem of overgrazing only to the most politically weak participant in the conflict – the private reindeer herder (Chap. 10). The background and content of the chapters in this book is the result of several projects focused on reindeer husbandry, traditional knowledge, resilience and adapting capacity. Since 2007, the EALÁT, a Sámi concept of ‘a good pasture’ (Nielsen, 1979), research project funded by Norwegian Research Council grant № 176078/S30: “Reindeer Herders Vulnerability Network Study: Reindeer pastoralism in a changing climate” has been a comprehensive, multidisciplinary, and multicultural study focused on resilience and climate change. An evaluation by Norwegian climate research showcased the EALÁT place and community-based approach as an example of bridging the gap between universities and societies, and between science and traditional knowledge (Rosswall et al., 2012).

The ongoing RIEVDAN research project “Rapid change – challenges and/or opportunities for sustainable reindeer husbandry?” is focused on the necessity to invest resources in the research of cultural capacity to change and the opportunities embedded in traditional knowledge and scientific knowledge. Rievdan is a Sámi concept that means change, be distinguishable from, or be able to manage (Nielsen, 1979).

The project has engaged students and researchers from Indigenous communities and leading scientific institutions over many years. The RIEVDAN Project is supported by the Research Council of Norway under grant № 238326, supporting the chapters published in the book to be used as a Project outcome for the foundation of a future master’s program in reindeer husbandry. The contribution to the book was also made through Research Council of Norway grant № 270819: “Opportunities and Challenges for Integrating Sámi Reindeer Herding Traditional Environmental Knowledge in Environmental Governance”, the NordForsk Project № 97299 “Feasibility study on co-production of knowledge between researchers and Indigeneous communities for climate change adaptation” and President of the University of the Arctic, and the Nordregio Project № A 18010 “Training of Arctic Indigenous Youth for Climate Change”, and Nomadic Herders project funded by the Norwegian Ministry of Climate Change and Environment, and Arctic Council project “EALLU Arctic Indigenous Youth: Traditional Knowledge and Food Culture – Navigation Towards Sustainability through New Approaches for Addressing Arctic Change and Globalisation”, International Centre for Reindeer Husbandry, Ministry of Local Government and Regional Development, Norway and Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Norway. Volume 2 of Reindeer Husbandry will focus on resilience to the changing Arctic.