Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Child with Sleep Disturbances

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Symptom-Based Approach to Pediatric Neurology

  • 880 Accesses

Abstract

Sleep problems are very common in childhood. Insomnia is the persistent inability to initiate and maintain sleep with resulting daytime impairment in functioning. Diagnosis is based on a detailed sleep history. The primary treatment for insomnia is behavioral intervention with pharmacotherapy reserved for those children who do not respond to these interventions. Restless leg syndrome (RLS) and periodic limb movement disorder of sleep (PLMDS) are sleep-related movement disorder that also impede the ability to initiate and maintain sleep. Restless leg syndrome can be diagnosed based on clinical criteria, but periodic limb movement disorder of sleep requires evaluation by polysomnography. Iron supplementation is the appropriate initial treatment. Delayed sleep wake phase disorder (DSWPD) is a circadian rhythm disorder that is very common in adolescents. The delayed sleep wake phase results in very delayed sleep onset and late awakening. This schedule is at odds with societal sleep norms resulting in insufficient sleep and marked daytime cognitive and behavioral dysfunction. Circadian rhythm-based treatment approaches include appropriately time melatonin administration and light therapy. Nonrapid eye movement sleep (NREM) parasomnias consisting of abnormal sleep behaviors are also very common in childhood. These disorders are typically benign and do not require treatment beyond parental reassurance. Frequent NREM parasomnia events should prompt evaluation for obstructive sleep apnea with polysomnography. The hallmark of narcolepsy is excessive sleepiness and sleep attacks. Cataplexy is a sudden loss of muscle tone provoked by emotion. Narcolepsy with cataplexy is caused by immune-mediated damage to the orexinergic neurons of the hypothalamus. The diagnosis of narcolepsy is based on the history of excessive sleepiness with demonstration of two sleep onset rapid eye movement periods (SOREMP’s) on multiple sleep latency test (MSLT). Sodium oxybate is the only FDA-approved treatment for children with narcolepsy with cataplexy.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
eBook
USD 16.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 89.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Abbreviations

ADHD:

Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder

DLMO:

Dim light melatonin onset

DSWPD:

Delayed sleep wake phase disorder

FDA:

Food and Drug Administration

ICSD-3:

International Classification of Sleep Disorders

KLS:

Kleine–Levin syndrome

MSLT:

Multiple sleep latency test

NREM:

Nonrapid eye movement sleep

NT 1:

Narcolepsy type I

NT 2:

Narcolepsy type II

ODD:

Oppositional defiant disorder

OSA:

Obstructive sleep apnea

PMLDS:

Periodic limb movement disorder of sleep

PSG:

Polysomnography

RBD:

REM behavior disorder

REM:

Rapid eye movement sleep

SCN:

Suprachiasmatic nucleus

SHE:

Sleep-related hypermotor epilepsy

SLD:

Sublaterodoral nucleus

SOREMP:

Sleep onset REM period

vlPAG-LPT:

Ventrolateral periaqueductal gray matter—lateral pontine tegmentum

References

  1. Sadeh A, Mindell J, Rivera L. “My child has a sleep problem”: a cross-cultural comparison of parental definitions. Sleep Med. 2011;12(5):478–82.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  2. Sadeh A, Mindell JA, Owens J. Why care about sleep of infants and their parents? Sleep Med Rev. 2011;15(5):335–7.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  3. American Academy of Sleep Medicine. International classification of sleep disorders. Darien: American Academy of Sleep Medicine; 2014.

    Google Scholar 

  4. Spruyt K. Neurocognitive effects of sleep disruption in children and adolescents. Child Adolesc Psychiatr Clin N Am. 2021;30(1):27–45.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  5. Wake M. Prevalence, stability, and outcomes of Cry-Fuss and sleep problems in the first 2 years of life: prospective community-based study. Pediatrics. 2006;117(3):836–42.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  6. Fricke-Oerkermann L, Plück J, Schredl M, Heinz K, Mitschke A, Wiater A, et al. Prevalence and course of sleep problems in childhood. Sleep. 2007;30(10):1371–7.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  7. Medalie L, Gozal D. Pediatric insomnia: update and future directions. J Child Sci. 2018;8(1):e172–80.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  8. Sadeh A, Mindell JA, Luedtke K, Wiegand B. Sleep and sleep ecology in the first 3 years: a web-based study. J Sleep Res. 2009;18(1):60–73.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  9. Gradisar M, Gardner G, Dohnt H. Recent worldwide sleep patterns and problems during adolescence: a review and meta-analysis of age, region, and sleep. Sleep Med. 2011;12(2):110–8.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  10. Johnson EO. Epidemiology of DSM-IV insomnia in adolescence: lifetime prevalence, chronicity, and an emergent gender difference. Pediatrics. 2006;117(2):e247–56.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  11. Kalmbach D, Cuamatzi-Castelan A, Tonnu C, Tran KM, Anderson J, Roth T, et al. Hyperarousal and sleep reactivity in insomnia: current insights. Nat Sci Sleep. 2018;10:193–201.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  12. Schiel JE, Holub F, Petri R, Leerssen J, Tamm S, Tahmasian M, et al. Affect and arousal in insomnia: through a lens of neuroimaging studies. Curr Psychiatry Rep. 2020;22(9):44.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  13. Van Someren EJW. Brain mechanisms of insomnia: new perspectives on causes and consequences. Physiol Rev. 2021;101(3):995–1046. https://doi.org/10.1152/physrev.00046.2019.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  14. Brown KM, Malow BA. Pediatric insomnia. Chest. 2016;149(5):1332–9.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  15. Bourchtein E, Langberg JM, Eadeh H-M. A review of pediatric nonpharmacological sleep interventions: effects on sleep, secondary outcomes, and populations with co-occurring mental health conditions. Behav Ther. 2020;51(1):27–41.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  16. Miano S, Ferri R. Epidemiology and management of insomnia in children with autistic spectrum disorders. Paediatr Drugs. 2010;12(2):75–84.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  17. Domingues-Montanari S. Clinical and psychological effects of excessive screen time on children: effects of screen time on children. J Paediatr Child Health. 2017;53(4):333–8.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  18. Snyder CK, Chang AM. Mobile technology, sleep, and circadian disruption. In: Sleep and health [Internet]. Elsevier; 2019 [cited 2020 Dec 20]. p. 159–70. https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/B9780128153734000137.

  19. Owens JA, Moore M. Insomnia in infants and young children. Pediatr Ann. 2017;46(9):e321–6.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  20. Owens JA, Dalzell V. Use of the ‘BEARS’ sleep screening tool in a pediatric residents’ continuity clinic: a pilot study. Sleep Med. 2005;6(1):63–9.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  21. Owens JA, Spirito A, McGuinn M. The Children’s Sleep Habits Questionnaire (CSHQ): psychometric properties of a survey instrument for school-aged children. Sleep. 2000;23(8):1–9.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  22. Lewandowski AS, Toliver-Sokol M, Palermo TM. Evidence-based review of subjective pediatric sleep measures. J Pediatr Psychol. 2011;36(7):780–93.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  23. Shahid A, editor. STOP, THAT and one hundred other sleep scales. New York: Springer; 2012. 421 p.

    Google Scholar 

  24. McGlinchey EL, Courtney-Seidler EA, German M, Miller AL. The role of sleep disturbance in suicidal and nonsuicidal self-injurious behavior among adolescents. Suicide Life Threat Behav. 2017;47(1):103–11.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  25. Lopes M, Boronat AC, Wang Y, Fu-I L. Sleep complaints as risk factor for suicidal behavior in severely depressed children and adolescents. CNS Neurosci Ther. 2016;22(11):915–20.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  26. Bruni O, Nevšímalová S, editors. Sleep disorders in children. 1st ed. Cham: Springer International Publishing: Imprint: Springer; 2017. 1 p.

    Google Scholar 

  27. Aurora RN, Lamm CI, Zak RS, Kristo DA, Bista SR, Rowley JA, et al. Practice parameters for the non-respiratory indications for polysomnography and multiple sleep latency testing for children. Sleep. 2012;35(11):1467–73.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  28. Depner CM, Cheng PC, Devine JK, Khosla S, de Zambotti M, Robillard R, et al. Wearable technologies for developing sleep and circadian biomarkers: a summary of workshop discussions. Sleep. 2020;43(2):zsz254.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  29. Lee XK, Chee NIYN, Ong JL, Teo TB, van Rijn E, Lo JC, et al. Validation of a consumer sleep wearable device with actigraphy and polysomnography in adolescents across sleep opportunity manipulations. J Clin Sleep Med. 2019;15(9):1337–46.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  30. Zhou ES, Owens J. Behavioral treatments for pediatric insomnia. Curr Sleep Med Rep. 2016;2(3):127–35.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  31. Lunsford-Avery JR, Bidopia T, Jackson L, Sloan JS. Behavioral treatment of insomnia and sleep disturbances in school-aged children and adolescents. Child Adolesc Psychiatr Clin N Am. 2021;30(1):101–16.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  32. Liu A. Sleep training. Pediatr Ann. 2020;49(3):e101–5.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  33. Himelfarb M, Shatkin JP. Pediatric insomnia. Child Adolesc Psychiatr Clin N Am. 2021;30(1):117–29.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  34. Dewald-Kaufmann J, de Bruin E, Michael G. Cognitive Behavioral Therapy for Insomnia (CBT-I) in school-aged children and adolescents. Sleep Med Clin. 2019;14(2):155–65.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  35. Hall WA, Nethery E. What does sleep hygiene have to offer children’s sleep problems? Paediatr Respir Rev. 2019;31:64–74.

    Google Scholar 

  36. Stepanski EJ, Wyatt JK. Use of sleep hygiene in the treatment of insomnia. Sleep Med Rev. 2003;7(3):215–25.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  37. Ekambaram V, Owens J. Medications used for pediatric insomnia. Child Adolesc Psychiatr Clin N Am. 2021;30(1):85–99.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  38. Bruni O, Alonso-Alconada D, Besag F, Biran V, Braam W, Cortese S, et al. Current role of melatonin in pediatric neurology: clinical recommendations. Eur J Paediatr Neurol. 2015;19(2):122–33.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  39. Abdelgadir IS, Gordon MA, Akobeng AK. Melatonin for the management of sleep problems in children with neurodevelopmental disorders: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Arch Dis Child. 2018;103(12):1155–62.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  40. Smits MG, van Stel HF, van der Heijden K, Meijer AM, Coenen AML, Kerkhof GA. Melatonin improves health status and sleep in children with idiopathic chronic sleep-onset insomnia: a randomized placebo-controlled trial. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2003;42(11):1286–93.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  41. van Geijlswijk IM, van der Heijden KB, Egberts ACG, Korzilius HPLM, Smits MG. Dose finding of melatonin for chronic idiopathic childhood sleep onset insomnia: an RCT. Psychopharmacology. 2010;212(3):379–91.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  42. Weiss M, Wasdell M, Bomben M, Rea K, Freeman R. Sleep hygiene and melatonin treatment for children and adolescents with ADHD and initial insomnia: J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry [Internet]. 2006 [cited 2020 Dec 20];PAP. http://content.wkhealth.com/linkback/openurl?sid=WKPTLP:landingpage&an=00004583-900000000-00011.

  43. Williams Buckley A, Hirtz D, Oskoui M, Armstrong MJ, Batra A, Bridgemohan C, et al. Practice guideline: treatment for insomnia and disrupted sleep behavior in children and adolescents with autism spectrum disorder: report of the guideline development, dissemination, and implementation Subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology. Neurology. 2020;94(9):392–404.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  44. Nguyen M, Tharani S, Rahmani M, Shapiro M. A review of the use of clonidine as a sleep aid in the child and adolescent population. Clin Pediatr (Phila). 2014;53(3):211–6.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  45. Mattes JA. Treating ADHD in prison: focus on alpha-2 agonists (clonidine and guanfacine). J Am Acad Psychiatr Law. 2016;44(2):7.

    Google Scholar 

  46. Katwala J, Kumar AK, Sejpal JJ, Terrence M, Mishra M. Therapeutic rationale for low dose doxepin in insomnia patients. Asian Pac J Trop Dis. 2013;3(4):331–6.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  47. Shah YD, Stringel V, Pavkovic I, Kothare SV. Doxepin in children and adolescents with symptoms of insomnia: a single-center experience. J Clin Sleep Med. 2020;16(5):743–7.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  48. Merenstein D, Diener-West M, Halbower AC, Krist A, Rubin HR. The trial of infant response to diphenhydramine: the TIRED study—a randomized, controlled, patient-oriented trial. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 2006;160(7):707.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  49. Bruni O, Angriman M, Calisti F, Comandini A, Esposito G, Cortese S, et al. Practitioner review: treatment of chronic insomnia in children and adolescents with neurodevelopmental disabilities. J Child Psychol Psychiatry. 2018;59(5):489–508.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  50. Mindell JA, Owens JA. A clinical guide to pediatric sleep diagnosis and management of sleep problems [Internet]. Wolters Kluwer Health; 2015 [cited 2021 Jan 1]. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&scope=site&db=nlebk&AN=1473049.

  51. Christensen H, Batterham PJ, Gosling JA, Ritterband LM, Griffiths KM, Thorndike FP, et al. Effectiveness of an online insomnia program (SHUTi) for prevention of depressive episodes (the GoodNight Study): a randomised controlled trial. Lancet Psychiatry. 2016;3(4):333–41.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  52. DelRosso LM, Mogavero MP, Baroni A, Bruni O, Ferri R. Restless legs syndrome in children and adolescents. Child Adolesc Psychiatr Clin N Am. 2021;30(1):143–57.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  53. Sharon D, Walters AS, Simakajornboon N. Restless legs syndrome and periodic limb movement disorder in children. J Child Sci. 2019;9(1):e38–49.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  54. Chervin RD, Hedger KM. Clinical prediction of periodic leg movements during sleep in children. Sleep Med. 2001;2(6):501–10.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  55. Picchietti DL, Rajendran RR, Wilson MP, Picchietti MA. Pediatric restless legs syndrome and periodic limb movement disorder: parent–child pairs. Sleep Med. 2009;10(8):925–31.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  56. Picchietti D, Allen RP, Walters AS, Davidson JE, Myers A, Ferini-Strambi L. Restless legs syndrome: prevalence and impact in children and adolescents the Peds REST study. Pediatrics. 2007;120(2):253–66.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  57. Begum E, Goodday A, Spurr K, Rajda M, Corkum P. Periodic limb movements of sleep in children with attention-deficit/ hyperactivity disorder: baseline frequency and impact of psychostimulant medication. SM J Sleep Disord. 2018;4(1):1–11.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  58. Picchietti DL, Underwood DJ, Farris WA, Walters AS, Shah MM, Dahl RE, et al. Further studies on periodic limb movement disorder and restless legs syndrome in children with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. Mov Disord. 1999;14(6):8.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  59. Picchietti DL, England SJ, Walters AS, Willis K, Verrico T. Periodic limb movement disorder and restless legs syndrome in children with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. J Child Neurol. 1998;13(12):588–94.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  60. Muhle H, Neumann A, Lohmann-Hedrich K, Lohnau T, Lu Y, Winkler S, et al. Childhood-onset restless legs syndrome: clinical and genetic features of 22 families. Mov Disord. 2008;23(8):1113–21.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  61. Sander HH, Eckeli AL, Costa Passos AD, Azevedo L, Fernandes do Prado LB, França Fernandes RM. Prevalence and quality of life and sleep in children and adolescents with restless legs syndrome/Willis-Ekbom disease. Sleep Med. 2017;30:204–9.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  62. Rye DB. The molecular genetics of restless legs syndrome. Sleep Med Clin. 2015;10(3):227–33.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  63. Garcia-Malo C, Peralta SR, Garcia-Borreguero D. Restless legs syndrome and other common sleep-related movement disorders. Continuum. 2020;26(4):963–87.

    Google Scholar 

  64. Lyu S, Xing H, DeAndrade MP, Liu Y, Perez PD, Yokoi F, et al. The role of BTBD9 in striatum and restless legs syndrome. eNeuro. 2019;6(5):ENEURO.0277-19.2019.

    Google Scholar 

  65. Lyu S, Xing H, DeAndrade MP, Perez PD, Zhang K, Liu Y, et al. The role of BTBD9 in the cerebral cortex and the pathogenesis of restless legs syndrome. Exp Neurol. 2020;323:113111.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  66. Lyu S, Xing H, DeAndrade MP, Perez PD, Yokoi F, Febo M, et al. The role of BTBD9 in the cerebellum, sleep-like behaviors and the restless legs syndrome. Neuroscience. 2020;440:85–96.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  67. Sarayloo F, Dion PA, Rouleau GA. MEIS1 and restless legs syndrome: a comprehensive review. Front Neurol. 2019;10:935.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  68. Connor JR, Patton SM, Oexle K, Allen RP. Iron and restless legs syndrome: treatment, genetics and pathophysiology. Sleep Med. 2017;31:61–70.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  69. Khan FH, Ahlberg CD, Chow CA, Shah DR, Koo BB. Iron, dopamine, genetics, and hormones in the pathophysiology of restless legs syndrome. J Neurol. 2017;264(8):1634–41.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  70. Munzer T, Felt B. The role of iron in pediatric restless legs syndrome and periodic limb movements in sleep. Semin Neurol. 2017;37(4):439–45.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  71. Chokroverty S. Differential diagnoses of restless legs syndrome/Willis-Ekbom disease. Sleep Med Clin. 2015;10(3):249–62.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  72. Walters AS, Gabelia D, Frauscher B. Restless legs syndrome (Willis–Ekbom disease) and growing pains: are they the same thing? A side-by-side comparison of the diagnostic criteria for both and recommendations for future research. Sleep Med. 2013;14(12):1247–52.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  73. Kanta P, Gopinathan NR. Idiopathic growing pains in pediatric patients: review of literature. Clin Pediatr (Phila). 2019;58(1):5–9.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  74. Picchietti DL, Arbuckle RA, Abetz L, Durmer JS, Ivanenko A, Owens JA, et al. Pediatric restless legs syndrome: analysis of symptom descriptions and drawings. J Child Neurol. 2011;26(11):1365–76.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  75. Picchietti DL, Bruni O, de Weerd A, Durmer JS, Kotagal S, Owens JA, et al. Pediatric restless legs syndrome diagnostic criteria: an update by the International Restless Legs Syndrome Study Group. Sleep Med. 2013;14(12):1253–9.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  76. Pullen SJ, Wall CA, Angstman ER, Munitz GE, Kotagal S. Psychiatric comorbidity in children and adolescents with restless legs syndrome: a retrospective study. J Clin Sleep Med. 2011;7(6):587–96.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  77. Srifuengfung M, Bussaratid S, Ratta-apha W, Sanguanpanich N, Hosiri T. Restless legs syndrome in children and adolescents with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: prevalence, mimic conditions, risk factors, and association with functional impairment. Sleep Med. 2020;73:117–24.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  78. Furudate N, Komada Y, Kobayashi M, Nakajima S, Inoue Y. Daytime dysfunction in children with restless legs syndrome. J Neurol Sci. 2014;336(1–2):232–6.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  79. Kanney ML, Durmer JS, Trotti LM, Leu R. Rethinking bedtime resistance in children with autism: is restless legs syndrome to blame? J Clin Sleep Med. 2020;16(12):2029–35.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  80. Berry RB, Quaan SF, Abreu AR, et al. The AASM manual for the scoring of sleep and associated events: rules, terminology and technical specifications. Darien: American Academy of Sleep Medicine; 2020. (Version 2.6).

    Google Scholar 

  81. Mackie S, Winkelman JW. Normal ferritin in a patient with iron deficiency and RLS. J Clin Sleep Med. 2013;9(5):511–3.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  82. Li J, Moore H, Lin L, Young T, Finn L, Peppard PE, et al. Association of low ferritin with PLM in the Wisconsin Sleep cohort. Sleep Med. 2015;16(11):1413–8.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  83. Allen RP, Picchietti DL, Auerbach M, Cho YW, Connor JR, Earley CJ, et al. Evidence-based and consensus clinical practice guidelines for the iron treatment of restless legs syndrome/Willis-Ekbom disease in adults and children: an IRLSSG task force report. Sleep Med. 2018;41:27–44.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  84. Rosen GM, Morrissette S, Larson A, Stading P, Barnes TL. Does improvement of low serum ferritin improve symptoms of restless legs syndrome in a cohort of pediatric patients? J Clin Sleep Med. 2019;15(8):1149–54.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  85. Dye TJ, Jain SV, Simakajornboon N. Outcomes of long-term iron supplementation in pediatric restless legs syndrome/periodic limb movement disorder (RLS/PLMD). Sleep Med. 2017;32:213–9.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  86. DelRosso L, Bruni O. Treatment of pediatric restless legs syndrome. In: Advances in pharmacology [Internet]. Elsevier; 2019 [cited 2020 Dec 21]. p. 237–53. https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1054358918300462.

  87. Picchietti DL. Should oral iron be first-line therapy for pediatric restless legs syndrome and periodic limb movement disorder? Sleep Med. 2017;32:220–1.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  88. Dye TJ, Gurbani N, Simakajornboon N. How does one choose the correct pharmacotherapy for a pediatric patient with restless legs syndrome and periodic limb movement disorder?: expert guidance. Expert Opin Pharmacother. 2019;20(13):1535–8.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  89. Sharon D. Nonpharmacologic management of restless legs syndrome (Willis-Ekbom disease). Sleep Med Clin. 2015;10(3):263–78.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  90. Chokroverty S, editor. Sleep disorders medicine: basic science, technical considerations and clinical aspects. 4th ed. New York: Springer: Imprint: Springer; 2017. 1 p.

    Google Scholar 

  91. Robinson AA, Malow BA. Gabapentin shows promise in treating refractory insomnia in children. J Child Neurol. 2013;28(12):1618–21.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  92. Allen RP, Earley CJ. Defining the phenotype of the restless legs syndrome (RLS) using age-of-symptom-onset. Sleep Med. 2000;9:11–9.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  93. Walters AS, Hickey K, Maltzman J, Verrico T, Joseph D, Hening W, et al. A questionnaire study of 138 patients with restless legs syndrome: the ‘Night-Walkers’ survey. Neurology. 1996;46(1):92–5.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  94. Picchietti DL, Stevens HE. Early manifestations of restless legs syndrome in childhood and adolescence. Sleep Med. 2008;9(7):770–81.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  95. Winkelman JW. Association of restless legs syndrome and cardiovascular disease in the Sleep Heart Health Study. Neurology. 2008;70(1):35–42.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  96. Chen S-J, Shi L, Bao Y-P, Sun Y-K, Lin X, Que J-Y, et al. Prevalence of restless legs syndrome during pregnancy: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Sleep Med Rev. 2018;40:43–54.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  97. Feder MA, Baroni A. Just let me sleep in. Child Adolesc Psychiatr Clin N Am. 2021;30(1):159–74.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  98. Reid KJ, Jaksa AA, Eisengart JB, Baron KG, Lu B, Kane P, et al. Systematic evaluation of axis-I DSM diagnoses in delayed sleep phase disorder and evening-type circadian preference. Sleep Med. 2012;13(9):1171–7.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  99. Prevalence of circadian misalignment and its association with depressive symptoms in delayed sleep phase disorder. Sleep [Internet]. 2017 [cited 2021 Jan 2]. https://academic.oup.com/sleep/article/doi/10.1093/sleep/zsw002/2957267/Prevalence-of-Circadian-Misalignment-and-Its.

  100. Rajaratnam SMW, Licamele L, Birznieks G. Delayed sleep phase disorder risk is associated with absenteeism and impaired functioning. Sleep Health. 2015;1(2):121–7.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  101. Lunsford-Avery JR, Kollins SH. Editorial perspective: delayed circadian rhythm phase: a cause of late-onset attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder among adolescents? J Child Psychol Psychiatry. 2018;59(12):1248–51.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  102. Auger RR, SpringerLink (Online service). Circadian rhythm sleep-wake disorders an evidence-based guide for clinicians and investigators. 2020.

    Google Scholar 

  103. Gradisar M, Crowley SJ. Delayed sleep phase disorder in youth. Curr Opin Psychiatry. 2013;26(6):580–5.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  104. Dibner C, Schibler U, Albrecht U. The mammalian circadian timing system: organization and coordination of central and peripheral clocks. Annu Rev Physiol. 2010;72(1):517–49.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  105. Carskadon MA. Sleep in adolescents: the perfect storm. Pediatr Clin North Am. 2011;58(3):637–47.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  106. Crowley SJ, Wolfson AR, Tarokh L, Carskadon MA. An update on adolescent sleep: new evidence informing the perfect storm model. J Adolesc. 2018;67:55–65.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  107. Patke A, Murphy PJ, Onat OE, Krieger AC, Özçelik T, Campbell SS, et al. Mutation of the human circadian clock gene CRY1 in familial delayed sleep phase disorder. Cell. 2017;169(2):203–215.e13.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  108. Smith MT, McCrae CS, Cheung J, Martin JL, Harrod CG, Heald JL, et al. Use of actigraphy for the evaluation of sleep disorders and circadian rhythm sleep-wake disorders: an American Academy of Sleep Medicine systematic review, meta-analysis, and GRADE assessment. J Clin Sleep Med. 2018;14(7):1209–30.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  109. Auger RR, Burgess HJ, Emens JS, Deriy LV, Thomas SM, Sharkey KM. Clinical practice guideline for the treatment of intrinsic circadian rhythm sleep-wake disorders: advanced sleep-wake phase disorder (ASWPD), delayed sleep-wake phase disorder (DSWPD), non-24-hour sleep-wake rhythm disorder (N24SWD), and irregular sleep-wake rhythm disorder (ISWRD). An update for 2015: an American Academy of Sleep Medicine clinical practice guideline. J Clin Sleep Med. 2015;11(10):1199–236.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  110. Bjorvatn B, Pallesen S. A practical approach to circadian rhythm sleep disorders. Sleep Med Rev. 2009;13(1):47–60.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  111. Micic G, Richardson C, Cain N, Reynolds C, Bartel K, Maddock B, et al. Readiness to change and commitment as predictors of therapy compliance in adolescents with Delayed Sleep-Wake Phase Disorder. Sleep Med. 2019;55:48–55.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  112. Richardson C, Cain N, Bartel K, Micic G, Maddock B, Gradisar M. A randomised controlled trial of bright light therapy and morning activity for adolescents and young adults with Delayed Sleep-Wake Phase Disorder. Sleep Med. 2018;45:114–23.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  113. Richardson C, Micic G, Cain N, Bartel K, Maddock B, Gradisar M. Cognitive performance in adolescents with Delayed Sleep-Wake Phase Disorder: treatment effects and a comparison with good sleepers. J Adolesc. 2018;65:72–84.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  114. Watson NF, Martin JL, Wise MS, Carden KA, Kirsch DB, Kristo DA, et al. Delaying middle school and high school start times promotes student health and performance: an American Academy of Sleep Medicine position statement. J Clin Sleep Med. 2017;13(4):623–5.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  115. Lloyd R, Tippmann-Peikert M, Slocumb N, Kotagal S. Characteristics of REM sleep behavior disorder in childhood. J Clin Sleep Med. 2012;8(2):127–31.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  116. Ekambaram V, Maski K. Non-rapid eye movement arousal parasomnias in children. Pediatr Ann. 2017;46(9):e327–31.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  117. Bruni O, DelRosso LM, Melegari MG, Ferri R. The parasomnias. Child Adolesc Psychiatr Clin N Am. 2021;30(1):131–42.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  118. Leung AKC, Leung AAM, Wong AHC, Hon KL. Sleep terrors: an updated review. Curr Pediatr Rev. 2020;16(3):176–82.

    Google Scholar 

  119. Laberge L, Tremblay RE, Vitaro F, Montplaisir J. Development of parasomnias from childhood to early adolescence. Pediatrics. 2000;106(1 Pt 1):67–74.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  120. Petit D, Pennestri M-H, Paquet J, Desautels A, Zadra A, Vitaro F, et al. Childhood sleepwalking and sleep terrors: a longitudinal study of prevalence and familial aggregation. JAMA Pediatr. 2015;169(7):653.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  121. Singh S, Kaur H, Singh S, Khawaja I. Parasomnias: a comprehensive review. Cureus [Internet]. 2018 31 [cited 2021 Jan 7]. https://www.cureus.com/articles/16963-parasomnias-a-comprehensive-review.

  122. Lecendreux M, Bassetti C, Dauvilliers Y, Mayer G, Neidhart E, Tafti M. HLA and genetic susceptibility to sleepwalking. Mol Psychiatry. 2003;8(1):114–7.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  123. Hublin C, Kaprio J. Genetic aspects and genetic epidemiology of parasomnias. Sleep Med Rev. 2003;7(5):413–21.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  124. Zucconi M, Oldani A, Ferini-Strambi L, Smirne S. Arousal fluctuations in non-rapid eye movement parasomnias: the role of cyclic alternating pattern as a measure of sleep instability. J Clin Neurophysiol [Internet]. 1995;12(2). https://journals.lww.com/clinicalneurophys/Fulltext/1995/03000/Arousal_Fluctuations_in_Non_Rapid_Eye_Movement.5.aspx.

  125. Rodriguez CL, Foldvary-Schaefer N. Clinical neurophysiology of NREM parasomnias. In: Handbook of clinical neurology [Internet]. Elsevier; 2019 [cited 2021 Jan 9]. p. 397–410. https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/B9780444641427000631.

  126. Balkin TJ. The process of awakening: a PET study of regional brain activity patterns mediating the re-establishment of alertness and consciousness. Brain. 2002;125(10):2308–19.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  127. Peter-Derex L, Magnin M, Bastuji H. Heterogeneity of arousals in human sleep: a stereo-electroencephalographic study. Neuroimage. 2015;123:229–44.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  128. Gibbs SA, Proserpio P, Terzaghi M, Pigorini A, Sarasso S, Lo Russo G, et al. Sleep-related epileptic behaviors and non-REM-related parasomnias: insights from stereo-EEG. Sleep Med Rev. 2016;25:4–20.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  129. Terzaghi M, Sartori I, Tassi L, Didato G, Rustioni V, LoRusso G, et al. Evidence of dissociated arousal states during NREM parasomnia from an intracerebral neurophysiological study. Sleep. 2009;32(3):4.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  130. Castelnovo A, Lopez R, Proserpio P, Nobili L, Dauvilliers Y. NREM sleep parasomnias as disorders of sleep-state dissociation. Nat Rev Neurol. 2018;14(8):470–81.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  131. Halász P, Kelemen A, Szűcs A. Physiopathogenetic Interrelationship between nocturnal frontal lobe epilepsy and NREM arousal parasomnias. Epilepsy Res Treat. 2012;2012:1–8.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  132. Bisulli F, Vignatelli L, Provini F, Leta C, Lugaresi E, Tinuper P. Parasomnias and nocturnal frontal lobe epilepsy (NFLE): lights and shadows—Controversial points in the differential diagnosis. Sleep Med. 2011;12:S27–32.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  133. Derry C. Nocturnal frontal lobe epilepsy vs parasomnias. Curr Treat Options Neurol. 2012;14(5):451–63.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  134. Derry CP. Sleeping in fits and starts: a practical guide to distinguishing nocturnal epilepsy from sleep disorders. Pract Neurol. 2014;14(6):391–8.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  135. Mutti C, Bernabè G, Barozzi N, Ciliento R, Trippi I, Pedrazzi G, et al. Commonalities and differences in NREM parasomnias and sleep-related epilepsy: is there a continuum between the two conditions? Front Neurol. 2020;11:600026.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  136. Erickson J, Vaughn BV. Non-REM parasomnia. Sleep Med Clin. 2019;14(3):363–70.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  137. Boursoulian LJ, Schenck CH, Mahowald MW, Lagrange AH. Differentiating parasomnias from nocturnal seizures. J Clin Sleep Med. 2012;8(1):108–12.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  138. Bisulli F, Vignatelli L, Naldi I, Pittau F, Provini F, Plazzi G, et al. Diagnostic accuracy of a structured interview for nocturnal frontal lobe epilepsy (SINFLE): a proposal for developing diagnostic criteria. Sleep Med. 2012;13(1):81–7.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  139. Manni R, Terzaghi M, Repetto A. The FLEP scale in diagnosing nocturnal frontal lobe epilepsy, NREM and REM parasomnias: data from a tertiary sleep and epilepsy unit. Epilepsia. 2008;49(9):1581–5.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  140. Kothare SV, Ivanenko A, editors. Parasomnias: clinical characteristics and treatment. New York: Springer; 2013. 488 p.

    Google Scholar 

  141. Guilleminault C, Palombini L, Pelayo R, Chervin RD. Sleepwalking and sleep terrors in prepubertal children: what triggers them? Pediatrics. 2003;111(1):e17–25.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  142. Gozal D, Wang M, Pope DW. Objective sleepiness measures in pediatric obstructive sleep apnea. Pediatrics. 2001;108(3):693–7.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  143. da Silva Gusmão Cardoso T, Pompéia S, Miranda MC. Cognitive and behavioral effects of obstructive sleep apnea syndrome in children: a systematic literature review. Sleep Med. 2018;46:46–55.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  144. Keefe KR, Patel PN, Levi JR. The shifting relationship between weight and pediatric obstructive sleep apnea: a historical review. Laryngoscope. 2019;129(10):2414–9.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  145. Samsoon GLT, Young JR. Difficult tracheal intubation: a retrospective study. Anesthesia. 1987;42:487–90.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  146. Kumar HVM, Schroeder JW, Gang Z, Sheldon SH. Mallampati score and pediatric obstructive sleep apnea. J Clin Sleep Med. 2014;10(9):985–90.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  147. Hwang S-H, Guilleminault C, Park C-S, Kim T-W, Hong S-C. Usefulness of adenotonsillar size for prediction of severity of obstructive sleep apnea and flow limitation. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 2013;149(2):326–34.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  148. Yan X, Zhao Y, Wang J, Shen T, Yang W, Qiao Y, et al. Associations among sleep symptoms, physical examination, and polysomnographic findings in children with obstructive sleep apnea. Eur Arch Otorhinolaryngol. 2020;277(2):623–30.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  149. Tinuper P, Bisulli F. From nocturnal frontal lobe epilepsy to sleep-related hypermotor epilepsy: a 35-year diagnostic challenge. Seizure. 2017;44:87–92.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  150. Tinuper P, Bisulli F. Definition and diagnostic criteria of sleep-related hypermotor epilepsy. Neurology. 2016;86(19):1834–42.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  151. Menghi V, Bisulli F, Tinuper P, Nobili L. Sleep-related hypermotor epilepsy: prevalence, impact and management strategies. Nat Sci Sleep. 2018;10:317–26.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  152. Certal V, Catumbela E, Winck JC, Azevedo I, Teixeira-Pinto A, Costa-Pereira A. Clinical assessment of pediatric obstructive sleep apnea: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Laryngoscope. 2012;122(9):2105–14.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  153. Carroll JL, McColley SA, Marcus CL, Curtis S, Loughlin GM. Inability of clinical history to distinguish primary snoring from obstructive sleep apnea syndrome in children. Chest. 1995;108(3):610–8.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  154. Patel AP, Meghji S, Phillips JS. Accuracy of clinical scoring tools for the diagnosis of pediatric obstructive sleep apnea. Laryngoscope. 2020;130(4):1034–43.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  155. Brietzke SE, Katz ES, Roberson DW. Can history and physical examination reliably diagnose pediatric obstructive sleep apnea/hypopnea syndrome? A systematic review of the literature. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 2004;131(6):827–32.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  156. Attarian H. Treatment options for parasomnias. Neurol Clin. 2010;28(4):1089–106.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  157. Drakatos P, Leschziner G. Diagnosis and management of nonrapid eye movement-parasomnias. Curr Opin Pulmon Med. 2019;25(6):629–35.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  158. Mindell JA, Owens JA. A clinical guide to pediatric sleep diagnosis and management of sleep problems [Internet]. Wolters Kluwer Health; 2015 [cited 2021 Jan 17]. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&scope=site&db=nlebk&AN=1473049.

  159. Kotagal S. Treatment of dyssomnias and parasomnias in childhood. Curr Treat Options Neurol. 2012;14(6):630–49.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  160. Hauri PJ, Silber MH, Boeve BF. The treatment of parasomnias with hypnosis: a 5-year follow-up study. J Clin Sleep Med. 2007;03(04):369–73.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  161. Kurz PJ, Kohler WC. Hypnosis in the management of sleep disorders. New York: Routledge; 2017.

    Google Scholar 

  162. Proserpio P, Terzaghi M, Manni R, Nobili L. Drugs used in parasomnia. Sleep Med Clin. 2020;15(2):289–300.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  163. Drakatos P, Marples L, Muza R, Higgins S, Gildeh N, Macavei R, et al. NREM parasomnias: a treatment approach based upon a retrospective case series of 512 patients. Sleep Med. 2019;53:181–8.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  164. Jan J, Freeman R, Wasdell M, Bomben M. A child with severe night terrors and sleep-walking responds to melatonin therapy. Dev Med Child Neurol [Internet]. 2004 [cited 2021 Jan 10];46(11). http://doi.wiley.com/10.1017/S0012162204231358.

  165. Özcan Ö, Dönmez YE. Melatonin treatment for childhood sleep terror. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol. 2014;24(9):528–9.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  166. Gozal D, Tan H-L, Kheirandish-Gozal L. Treatment of obstructive sleep apnea in children: handling the unknown with precision. J Clin Med. 2020;9(3):888.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  167. Bitners AC, Arens R. Evaluation and management of children with obstructive sleep apnea syndrome. Lung. 2020;198(2):257–70.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  168. Kaditis AG, Alonso Alvarez ML, Boudewyns A, Alexopoulos EI, Ersu R, Joosten K, et al. Obstructive sleep disordered breathing in 2- to 18-year-old children: diagnosis and management. Eur Respir J. 2016;47(1):69–94.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  169. Salman SO. Modern management of obstructive sleep apnea [Internet]. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2019 [cited 2021 Jan 17]. https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-3-030-11443-5.

  170. Parmar A, Baker A, Narang I. Positive airway pressure in pediatric obstructive sleep apnea. Paediatr Respir Rev. 2019;31:43–51.

    Google Scholar 

  171. Liming BJ, Ryan M, Mack D, Ahmad I, Camacho M. Montelukast and nasal corticosteroids to treat pediatric obstructive sleep apnea: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 2019;160(4):594–602.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  172. Calapai G, Casciaro M, Miroddi M, Calapai F, Navarra M, Gangemi S. Montelukast-induced adverse drug reactions: a review of case reports in the literature. Pharmacology. 2014;94(1–2):60–70.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  173. Gurbani N, Dye TJ, Dougherty K, Jain S, Horn PS, Simakajornboon N. Improvement of parasomnias after treatment of restless leg syndrome/periodic limb movement disorder in children. J Clin Sleep Med. 2019;15(5):743–8.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  174. Ramantani G, Kadish NE, Mayer H, Anastasopoulos C, Wagner K, Reuner G, et al. Frontal lobe epilepsy surgery in childhood and adolescence: predictors of long-term seizure freedom, overall cognitive and adaptive functioning. Neurosurgery. 2018;83(1):93–103.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  175. Lee J, Yeo S, Kim K, Chung S. Sleep environment and non-rapid eye movement-related parasomnia among children: 42 case series. Sleep Med Res. 2020;11(1):49–52.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  176. Bassetti CLA, Adamantidis A, Burdakov D, Han F, Gay S, Kallweit U, et al. Narcolepsy—clinical spectrum, aetiopathophysiology, diagnosis and treatment. Nat Rev Neurol. 2019;15(9):519–39.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  177. Kornum BR, Knudsen S, Ollila HM, Pizza F, Jennum PJ, Dauvilliers Y, et al. Narcolepsy. Nat Rev Dis Primers. 2017;3(1):16100.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  178. Pillen S, Pizza F, Dhondt K, Scammell TE, Overeem S. Cataplexy and its mimics: clinical recognition and management. Curr Treat Options Neurol. 2017;19(6):23.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  179. Schiappa C, Scarpelli S, D’Atri A, Gorgoni M, De Gennaro L. Narcolepsy and emotional experience: a review of the literature. Behav Brain Funct. 2018;14(1):19.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  180. Pizza F, Antelmi E, Vandi S, Meletti S, Erro R, Baumann CR, et al. The distinguishing motor features of cataplexy: a study from video-recorded attacks. Sleep [Internet]. 2018 [cited 2021 Jan 17];41(5). https://academic.oup.com/sleep/article/doi/10.1093/sleep/zsy026/4841988.

  181. Lammers GJ, Overeem S, Tijssen MAJ, van Dijk JG. Effects of startle and laughter in cataplectic subjects: a neurophysiological study between attacks. Clin Neurophysiol. 2000;111(7):1276–81.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  182. Parmar A, Murray BJ, Narang I. Clinical characteristics of cataplectic attacks in type 1 narcolepsy. Curr Neurol Neurosci Rep. 2020;20(9):38.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  183. Serra L, Montagna P, Mignot E, Lugaresi E, Plazzi G. Cataplexy features in childhood narcolepsy: cataplexy in childhood narcolepsy. Mov Disord. 2008;23(6):858–65.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  184. Nevsimalova S, Pisko J, Buskova J, Kemlink D, Prihodova I, Sonka K, et al. Narcolepsy: clinical differences and association with other sleep disorders in different age groups. J Neurol. 2013;260(3):767–75.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  185. Plazzi G, Clawges HM, Owens JA. Clinical characteristics and burden of illness in pediatric patients with narcolepsy. Pediatr Neurol. 2018;85:21–32.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  186. Postiglione E, Antelmi E, Pizza F, Lecendreux M, Dauvilliers Y, Plazzi G. The clinical spectrum of childhood narcolepsy. Sleep Med Rev. 2018;38:70–85.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  187. Com G, Einen MA, Jambhekar S. Narcolepsy with cataplexy: diagnostic challenge in children. Clin Pediatr (Phila). 2015;54(1):5–14.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  188. Plazzi G, Pizza F, Palaia V, Franceschini C, Poli F, Moghadam KK, et al. Complex movement disorders at disease onset in childhood narcolepsy with cataplexy. Brain. 2011;134(12):3480–92.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  189. Pisko J, Pastorek L, Buskova J, Sonka K, Nevsimalova S. Nightmares in narcolepsy: underinvestigated symptom? Sleep Med. 2014;15(8):967–72.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  190. Scammell TE. Narcolepsy. Campion EW, editor. N Engl J Med. 2015;373(27):2654–62.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  191. Ollila HM. Narcolepsy type 1: what have we learned from genetics? Sleep. 2020;43(11):99.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  192. Merdad RA, Akil H, Wali SO. Sleepiness in adolescents. Sleep Med Clin. 2017;12(3):415–28.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  193. Goswami M, Pandi-Perumal SR, Thorpy MJ, editors. Narcolepsy: a clinical guide. 2nd ed. Cham: Springer International Publishing: Imprint: Springer; 2016. 1 p.

    Google Scholar 

  194. Keyes KM, Maslowsky J, Hamilton A, Schulenberg J. The great sleep recession: changes in sleep duration among US adolescents, 1991-2012. Pediatrics. 2015;135(3):460–8.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  195. Wheaton AG, Jones SE, Cooper AC, Croft JB. Short sleep duration among middle school and high school students—United States, 2015. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2018;67(3):85–90.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  196. Trotti LM. Idiopathic hypersomnia. 2018;20.

    Google Scholar 

  197. Chellappa SL, Schröder C, Cajochen C. Chronobiology, excessive daytime sleepiness and depression: is there a link? Sleep Med. 2009;10(5):505–14.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  198. Al Suwayri SM, BaHammam AS. The “known unknowns” of Kleine-Levin syndrome. Sleep Med Clin. 2017;12(3):345–58.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  199. Gadoth N, Oksenberg A. Kleine–Levin syndrome; An update and mini-review. Brain Dev. 2017;39(8):665–71.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  200. Lima FCB, do Nascimento Junior EB, Teixeira SS, Coelho FM, da Paz Oliveira G. Thinking outside the box: cataplexy without narcolepsy. Sleep Med. 2019;61:118–21.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  201. Smit LS, Lammers GJ, Catsman-Berrevoets CE. Cataplexy leading to the diagnosis of Niemann-Pick disease type C. Pediatr Neurol. 2006;35(1):82–4.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  202. Sabaneeff L, Mendes Motta H, Castro J, Tufik S, Santos Coelho FM. Moebius syndrome and narcolepsy: a case dissertation. Sleep Sci. 2014;7(1):43–6.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  203. Hahn JS, Hanauer A. Stimulus-induced drop episodes in Coffin–Lowry syndrome. Eur J Med Genet. 2012;55(5):335–7.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  204. Postiglione E, Antelmi E, Pizza F, Vandi S, La Morgia C, Carelli V, et al. Cataplexy and ataxia: red flags for the diagnosis of DNA methyltransferase 1 mutation. J Clin Sleep Med. 2020;16(1):143–7.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  205. Catania A, Peverelli L, Tabano S, Ghezzi D, Lamperti C. DNMT1-complex disorder caused by a novel mutation associated with an overlapping phenotype of autosomal-dominant cerebellar ataxia, deafness, and narcolepsy (ADCA-DN) and hereditary sensory neuropathy with dementia and hearing loss (HSN1E). Neurol Sci. 2019;40(9):1963–6.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  206. Reading P. Cataplexy. Pract Neurol. 2019;19(1):21–7.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  207. Meinen CN, Smith KM, Tillema J-M, Kotagal S. Pseudo status cataplecticus in narcolepsy type 1. J Clin Sleep Med. 2018;14(09):1625–7.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  208. Fishbein A, Sheldon SH. Allergy and sleep basic principles and clinical practice [Internet]. 2019 [cited 2021 Jan 18]. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-14738-9

  209. Malhotra RK, editor. Sleepy or sleepless: clinical approach to the sleep patient. 1st ed. 2015. Cham: Springer International Publishing: Imprint: Springer; 2015. 1 p.

    Google Scholar 

  210. Benmedjahed K, Wang YG, Lambert J, Evans C, Hwang S, Black J, et al. Assessing sleepiness and cataplexy in children and adolescents with narcolepsy: a review of current patient-reported measures. Sleep Med. 2017;32:143–9.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  211. Kallweit U, Schmidt M, Bassetti CL. Patient-reported measures of narcolepsy: the need for better assessment. J Clin Sleep Med. 2017;13(5):737–44.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  212. Kim J, Lee G-H, Sung SM, Jung DS, Pak K. Prevalence of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder symptoms in narcolepsy: a systematic review. Sleep Med. 2020;65:84–8.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  213. Thieux M, Zhang M, Marcastel A, Herbillon V, Guignard-Perret A, Seugnet L, et al. Intellectual abilities of children with narcolepsy. J Clin Med. 2020;9(12):4075.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  214. Ingram DG, Jesteadt L, Crisp C, Simon SL. Perceived challenges in pediatric narcolepsy: a survey of parents, youth, and sleep physicians. J Clin Sleep Med. 2021;17(1):13–22.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  215. Graef DM, Byars KC, Simakajornboon N, Dye TJ. Topical review: a biopsychosocial framework for pediatric narcolepsy and idiopathic hypersomnia. J Pediatr Psychol. 2020;45(1):34–9.

    Google Scholar 

  216. Shelton AR, Malow B. Correlates to problem behaviors in pediatric narcolepsy: a pilot study. J Clin Sleep Med. 2017;13(12):1435–40.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  217. Ludwig B, Smith S, Heussler H. Associations between neuropsychological, neurobehavioral and emotional functioning and either narcolepsy or idiopathic hypersomnia in children and adolescents. J Clin Sleep Med. 2018;14(4):14.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  218. Pizza F, Barateau L, Jaussent I, Vandi S, Antelmi E, Mignot E, et al. Validation of multiple sleep latency test for the diagnosis of pediatric narcolepsy type 1. Neurology. 2019;93(11):e1034–44.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  219. Morse AM. Narcolepsy in children and adults: a guide to improved recognition, diagnosis and management. Med Sci. 2019;7(12):106.

    Google Scholar 

  220. Kotagal S. Treatment of narcolepsy and other organic hypersomnias in children. Paediatr Respir Rev. 2018;25:19–24.

    Google Scholar 

  221. Franceschini C, Pizza F, Antelmi E, Folli MC, Plazzi G. Narcolepsy treatment: pharmacological and behavioral strategies in adults and children. Sleep Breath. 2020;24(2):615–27.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  222. Bhattarai J, Sumerall S. Current and future treatment options for narcolepsy: a review. Sleep Sci [Internet]. 2017 [cited 2021 Jan 17];10(1). http://www.gnresearch.org/doi/10.5935/1984-0063.20170004.

  223. Plazzi G, Ruoff C, Lecendreux M, Dauvilliers Y, Rosen CL, Black J, et al. Treatment of paediatric narcolepsy with sodium oxybate: a double-blind, placebo-controlled, randomised-withdrawal multicentre study and open-label investigation. Lancet Child Adolesc Health. 2018;2(7):483–94.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  224. de Biase S, Pellitteri G, Gigli GL, Valente M. Evaluating pitolisant as a narcolepsy treatment option. Expert Opin Pharmacother. 2021;22:155–62.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  225. Giannoccaro MP, Sallemi G, Liguori R, Plazzi G, Pizza F. Immunotherapy in narcolepsy. Curr Treat Options Neurol. 2020;22:2.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  226. Edwards K, Lambert P-H, Black S. Narcolepsy and pandemic influenza vaccination: what we need to know to be ready for the next pandemic. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2019;38(8):873–6.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  227. Zhang Z, Gool J, Fronczek R, Bassetti CL, Dauvilliers Y, Mayer G, et al. A new incidence peak of childhood narcolepsy type 1 in 2013: a new perspective on the role of influenza virus? [Internet]. Neurology. 2020 [cited 2021 Jan 5]. http://medrxiv.org/lookup/doi/10.1101/2019.12.31.19016246.

  228. Edwards K, Hanquet G, Black S, Mignot E, Jankosky C, Shimabukuro T, et al. Meeting report narcolepsy and pandemic influenza vaccination: what we know and what we need to know before the next pandemic? A report from the 2nd IABS meeting. Biologicals. 2019;60:1–7.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Pediatrics, Zucker School of Medicine at Hofstra/Northwell, Hempstead, NY, USA

    Sanjeev V. Kothare

  2. Division of Pediatric Neurology, Zucker School of Medicine at Hofstra/Northwell, Hempstead, NY, USA

    Ivan Pavkovic

Authors
  1. Sanjeev V. Kothare
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Ivan Pavkovic
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Sanjeev V. Kothare .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Pediatrics, University of Texas Health Science Center, San Antonio, TX, USA

    Deepak M. Kamat

  2. Pediatrics and Neurology, Central Michigan University Children’s Hospital of Michigan, Detroit, MI, USA

    Lalitha Sivaswamy

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2022 The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG

About this chapter

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this chapter

Kothare, S.V., Pavkovic, I. (2022). Child with Sleep Disturbances. In: Kamat, D.M., Sivaswamy, L. (eds) Symptom-Based Approach to Pediatric Neurology . Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-10494-7_13

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-10494-7_13

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Cham

  • Print ISBN: 978-3-031-10493-0

  • Online ISBN: 978-3-031-10494-7

  • eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation