Abstract
Heavy metal contamination of sediments is often observed as a result of the expansion of industrial sectors and agro-economic systems, especially in developing regions. The high pollution of the river Yamuna in India, especially the substantial heavy metal contamination not only to the river but also increasingly to groundwater in Mathura and Agra regions is of concern for the production of drinking water. Consequently, this study focused on a prognosis of the risk of heavy metal contamination during the investigations for a new riverbank filtration (RBF) site in the cities of Mathura and Agra. Twenty sediment samples were taken at each site during the drilling of an exploratory well for RBF up to a depth of 30 m. The heavy metals As, Cd, Cr, Cu, Fe, Mn, Ni, Pb and Zn were analysed in soil and aquifer sediments and water from the exploratory wells. Principal component analysis (PCA) was subsequently performed for the heavy metal concentrations in the soil and sediment samples. In general, the heavy metal concentrations found in the aquifer sediments were significantly lower compared to concentrations in riverbed material reported in literature, lower than WHO limits for agricultural soils (except Cd and Pb in Agra) and lower than values in other literature sources. While the heavy metal concentrations found in the exploratory well water in Mathura were generally found to be within the WHO drinking water guideline limits, the mean concentrations of Cd and Pb in the exploratory well in Agra significantly exceeded the WHO guideline values. The study concluded that the risk of leaching of heavy metals and consequent contamination to groundwater by the vertical movement of irrigation water is expected to be significantly greater compared to the movement of infiltrated river water through the riverbed during the RBF. Consequently, caution should be exercised when selecting flood-plain areas for new RBF sites that have been irrigated in the past with surface water impacted by heavy metals. The major sources of heavy metals identified by PCA were mainly natural and to a certain extent anthropogenic, especially in the upper layers of the soil/aquifer and is also indicative of a lesser risk of heavy metal contamination during RBF. Nevertheless, for RBF to be effective at new sites impacted by extreme environmental conditions, well-head and source-protection zones have to be implemented to avoid contamination of the aquifer from above ground anthropogenic activities. Furthermore, frequent water quality monitoring for not only heavy metals, but also other parameters in the RBF well(s), river and ambient (landward side) groundwater is important.
Former affiliation of the Author N. C. Ghosh—Groundwater Hydrology Division, National Institute of Hydrology, Roorkee, Uttarakhand, India.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Ahmed S, Khurshid S, Qureshi F, Hussain A, Bhattacharya A (2018) Heavy metals and geo-accumulation index development for groundwater of Mathura city, Uttar Pradesh. Desalination Water Treat 138:291–300
Ahmed S, Khurshid S, Madan R, Abu Amarah BA, Naushad M (2020) Water quality assessment of shallow aquifer based on Canadian Council of Ministers of the environment index and its impact on irrigation of Mathura District, Uttar Pradesh. J King Saud Univ Sci 32:1218–1225
Ajmal M, Khan MA, Nomani AA (1985) Distribution of heavy metals in water and sediments of selected sites of Yamuna river (India). Environ Monit Assess 5(2):205–2014
Bartak R, Page D, Sandhu C, Grischek T, Saini B, Mehrotra I, Jain CK, Ghosh NC (2015) Application of risk-based assessment and management to riverbank filtration sites in India. J Water Health 13(1):174–189
Bhargava DS (2006) Revival of Mathura’s ailing Yamuna river. Environmentalist 26:111–122
Brümmer GW, Gerth J, Herms U (1986) Heavy metal species, mobility and availability in soils. Z Pflanzenernährung Bodenkunde 149:382–398
Census of India (2011) City census. Office of the registrar general and census commissioner, India, Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of India. https://www.census2011.co.in/city.php. Accessed 2 Mar 2021
Chakarvorty M, Dwivedi AK, Shukla AD, Kumar S, Niyogi A, Usmani M, Pati JK (2015) Geochemistry and magnetic measurements of suspended sediment in urban sewage water vis-à-vis quantification of heavy metal pollution in Ganga and Yamuna Rivers, India. Environ Monit Assess 187:604–621
Chaturvedi A, Bhattacharjee S, Singha AK, Kumar V (2018) A new approach for indexing groundwater heavy metal pollution. Ecol Indic 87:323–331
Chukwujindu I, Lari B, Osakwe SA, Tesi GO, Nwajei GE, Martincigh BS (2018) Distribution, sources and ecological risks of metals in surficial sediments of the Forcados River and its Estuary, Niger Delta, Nigeria. Environ Earth Sci 77:227
Dillon P, Stuyfzand P, Grischek T et al (2019) Sixty years of global progress in managed aquifer recharge. Hydrogeol J 27(1):1–30
EEC/86/278 (1986) Council directive on the protection of the environment, and in particular of the soil, when sewage sludge is used in agriculture. Off J Eur Communities L 181(6):6–12
Everitt BS, Dunn G (1992) Applied multivariate data analysis. Oxford University Press, New York, p 304
Glorian H, Börnick H, Sandhu C, Grischek T (2018) Water quality monitoring in Northern India for an evaluation of the efficiency of bank filtration sites. Water 10:1804
Grischek T, Dehnert J, Nestler W, Treutler HC, Freyer K (1993) Description of system conditions during bank filtration based on investigation of bore cores. In: Proceedings of the 2nd Dresdner Grundwasserforschungstage. Dresden, pp 207–220 (in German)
Grischek T, Ray C (2009) Bank filtration as managed surface—groundwater interaction. Int J Water 5(2):125–139
Jaiswal M, Hussain J, Gupta SK, Nasr M, Nema AK (2019) Comprehensive evaluation of water quality status for entire stretch of Yamuna River, India. Environ Monit Assess 191:208–224
Jankowska J, Radzka E, Rymuza K (2017) Principal component analysis and cluster analysis in multivariate assessment of water quality. J Ecol Eng 18(2):92–96
Jansson P-E (1987) Simulated soil temperature and moisture at a clearcutting in central Sweden. Scand J For Res 2:127–140
Jha PK (1986) Nature of chemical and sediment load in the Yamuna River Basin. Ph.D thesis, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, 207 pp
Jha PK, Subramanian V, Sitasawad R, Van Grieken R (1990) Heavy metals in sediments of the Yamuna river (A tributary of the Ganges), India. Sci Tot Environ 95:7–27
Khan S (2016–2017) Hydrogeology of Uttar Pradesh. Report, Central Ground Water Board, Northern Region, Lucknow, India
Kinuthia GK, Ngure V, Beti D et al (2020) Levels of heavy metals in wastewater and soil samples from open drainage channels in Nairobi, Kenya: community health implication. Sci Rep 10:8434. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-65359-5
Krishan G, Singh S, Sharma A, Sandhu C, Grischek T, Ghosh NC, Gurjar S, Kumar S, Singh RP, Glorian H, Börnick H (2016) Assessment of water quality for river bank filtration along Yamuna River in Agra and Mathura. Int J Environ Sci 7(1):56–67
Krishan G, Chandniha SK, Lohani AK, Yadav BK, Arora NK, Singh S, Kumar CP, Sharma LM, Bhardwaj AK (2018) Assessment of heavy metals in relation to soil pollution at Mewat, Haryana, India. Curr World Environ 13(3):299–306
Kumar S (2013) Appraisal of heavy metal concentration in selected vegetables exposed to different degrees of pollution in Agra, India. Environ Monit Assess 185:2683–2690
Kumar P, Mehrotra I, Börnick H, Schmalz V, Worch E, Schmidt W, Grischek T (2012) Riverbank filtration: an alternative to pre-chlorination. J Indian Water Works Assoc Spec Issue 50–58
Lindsay WL, Norwell WA (1978) Development of DTPA of soil test for Zn, Fe, Mn and Cu. J Am Soil Sci 42:421–428
Maeng SK (2010) Multiple objective treatment aspects of bank filtration. PhD dissertation, Delft University of Technology and UNESCO-IHE Institute for Water Education, Delft, The Netherlands. CRC Press/Balkema, The Netherlands, 196 pp
Misra AK, Mishra A (2006) Groundwater quality monitoring in shallow and deep aquifers in Saidabad Tahsil area, Mathura district, India. Environ Monit Assess 117:345–355
Mondal NC, Singh VS, Puranik SC, Singh VP (2010) Trace element concentration in groundwater of Pesarlanka Island, Krishna Delta, India. Environ Monit Assess 163:215–227
Nasr M, Zahran H (2016) Performance evaluation of agricultural drainage water using modeling and statistical approaches. Egypt J Aquat Res 42(2):141–148
Omwene PI, Öncel MS, Çelen M, Kobya M (2018) Heavy metal pollution and spatial distribution in surface sediments of Mustafakemalpaşa stream located in the world’s largest borate basin (Turkey). Chemosphere 208:782–792
Pal R, Dubey RK, Dubey SK, Singh AK (2017) Assessment of heavy metal pollution through index analysis for Yamuna water in Agra Region, India. Int J Curr Microbiol Appl Sci 6(12):1491–1498
Paul D (2017) Research on heavy metal pollution of river Ganga: a review. Ann Agrar Sci 15:278–286
Reiners WA, Marks RH, Vitousek PM (1975) Heavy metals in subalpine and alpine soils of New Hampshire. Oikos 26:264–275
Sandhu C, Grischek T, Börnick H, Feller J, Sharma SK (2019) A water quality appraisal of some existing and potential riverbank filtration sites in India. Water 11:215
Sehgal M, Garg A, Suresh R, Dagar P (2012) Heavy metal contamination in the Delhi segment of Yamuna basin. Environ Monit Assess 184:1181–1196
Shine JP, Ika RV, Ford TE (1995) Multivariate statistical examination of spatial and temporal patterns of heavy metal contamination in New Bedford Harbor marine sediments. Environ Sci Technol 29(7):1781–1788
Singh P, Kumar P, Mehrotra I, Grischek T (2010) Impact of riverbank filtration on treatment of polluted river water. J Environ Manag 91(5):1055–1062
Singh AK, Srivastava SC, Verma P, Ansari A, Verma A (2014) Hazard assessment of metals in invasive fish species of the Yamuna River, India in relation to bioaccumulation factor and exposure concentration for human health implications. Environ Monit Assess 186:3823–3836
Subramanian V, Sitasawad R (1984) A study on water quality in the River Yamuna around Delhi, India. Water Qual Bull 9:219–222
SVfS (2005) Evaluation criteria for the assessment of groundwater pollution in Berlin (Berliner Liste 2005). Senatsverwaltung für Stadtentwicklung Berlin, ABl. Nr. 35/22.07.2005, Germany (in German)
United States Department of Agriculture (2000) Natural resources conservation service. Soil Quality Institute 411 S. Donahue Dr. Auburn, AL 36832 334-844-4741 X-177 Urban technical note No. 3, September, 2000
WHO (1993) Standard maxima for metals in Agricultural soils. WHO Press, Geneva, Switzerland
WHO (2011) Adverse health effects of heavy metals in children. Children’s Health and the Environment; WHO Training Package for the Health Sector
WHO (2017) Guidelines for drinking-water quality: fourth edition incorporating the first addendum. WHO Press, Geneva, Switzerland
Wu W, Wu P, Yang F, Sun D-L, Zhang D-X, Zhou Y-K (2018) Assessment of heavy metal pollution and human health risks in urban soils around an electronics manufacturing facility. Sci Tot Environ 630:53–61
Acknowledgements
The presented work was carried out under the Project “Peyjal Suraksha” funded by Ministry of Water Resources, River Development and Ganga Rejuvenation, Government of India, and the project “CCRBF—Expansion of the Indo-German Competence Centre for Riverbank Filtration” (2020–2023) funded by the Federal Ministry of Education and Research of Germany (BMBF; grant no. 01DU20003A), within the programme CONNECT.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2022 The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Krishan, G. et al. (2022). Assessment of Heavy Metals in Sediments from Exploratory Wells for Riverbank Filtration Sites Impacted by Extreme Environmental Conditions Using Principal Component Analysis. In: Jha, R., Singh, V.P., Singh, V., Roy, L., Thendiyath, R. (eds) Groundwater and Water Quality. Water Science and Technology Library, vol 119. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-09551-1_3
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-09551-1_3
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-031-09550-4
Online ISBN: 978-3-031-09551-1
eBook Packages: Earth and Environmental ScienceEarth and Environmental Science (R0)