Keywords

9.1 Introduction

Biodiversity contributes to the functioning of the forest ecosystem and the provision of ecosystem services (e.g., Brockerhoff et al., 2017) that are important for human well-being. Since 1992, the international community has committed to conserve biodiversity under the Rio de Janeiro declaration. Biodiversity as a concept seems to be intuitive and easy to understand, but this is not the case. Furthermore, it does not necessarily imply naturalness (Pignatti, 1995a). Generally, biodiversity is referred to five levels, ranging from genetics to the geographical region passing through species, ecosystem and landscape biodiversity (Bernetti, 2005). The survey of variables specifically related to biodiversity is a recent addition to national forest inventories (Gasparini et al., 2013). INFC contributes by providing useful information for the assessment of biodiversity on four out of five of these levels. Estimates in Chap. 7 on the inventory categories and the forest types that characterise the Italian territories, such as the regions and the macro-regions, are related to the first three broad levels, i.e., the regional, landscape and community diversity. Further information is available at inventarioforestale.org/statistiche_INFC%20link, with special reference to the forest subtypes. This chapter describes INFC2015 results on the tree species diversity (Sect. 9.2), stand origin (Sect. 9.3), deadwood (Sect. 9.4) and the wooded lands in protected areas (Sect. 9.5).

Italian forest vegetation is marked by a high degree of diversity (Pedrotti, 1995). This is also due to the great variety of environmental conditions and climates that contribute to the general floristic richness of Italy (Pignatti, 1994). Although the number of species is not exhaustive in showing the biodiversity of a studied area (e.g., Pignatti, 1995b), it is considered a natural index that forms the basis of many ecological models (Gotelli & Colwell, 2001). Species richness is also one of the most important features for the naturalistic value assessment of forests (Pignatti & De Natale, 2011).

Naturalness of forests may also be evaluated based on regeneration, which INFC considers under the stand origin assessment. The most natural conditions occur when regeneration is not assisted or favoured by any human activity; to the contrary, a seeded or planted stand is marked by an artificial origin. In such a case, the impact on the environment may vary considerably depending on the material used, e.g., seeds collected in the same area or exotic species for timber production. Regeneration assisted or favoured through silvicultural operations, which creates semi-natural stands, generally guarantees conservation of local ecotypes, unless what is favoured is an exotic species or provenance previously introduced.

Deadwood is a key component of forest ecosystems. It contributes to biodiversity conservation, to carbon, nitrogen and phosphorus cycles. In addition, deadwood influences stand dynamics and regeneration of natural and semi-natural forests, plays a role in soil stabilisation on deep slopes and along the rivers (e.g., Paletto et al., 2012) and may hinder avalanche release (Berretti et al., 2006). Being combustible, as well as a resource for energy, deadwood in forests plays a role in the risk and propagation model of fires. Countries that have signed agreements on climate change mitigation need to estimate the carbon stored in deadwood, because it is one of the five forest pools recognised by IPCC (IPCC, 2003). Inclusion of deadwood among the variables measured by national forest inventories resulted in an unprecedented availability of data collected over wide areas that also showed severe limits in the modelling (e.g., Woodall et al., 2019) and demonstrated the importance of direct measurement of deadwood.

Protected areas play a crucial role in biodiversity conservation and in the safeguard of various ecosystems, including forests (Dudley & Phillips, 2006). National forest inventories may provide suitable information on protected forests. Forests are one of the essential components of the protected areas in Italy.

9.2 Tree Species

Richness of tree species is a prerequisite for having forests under diverse environmental conditions, whose diversified ecology and functioning is also important to assure the many ecosystem services that are required nowadays. INFC2015 has measured (DBH ≥ 4.5 cm) approximately 180 woody species.

Table 9.1 lists the 45 main species, in terms of growing stock in the Italian Forest. It shows estimates for the number of trees, basal area, growing stock volume and aboveground tree biomass, aboveground carbon stock and annual volume increment. Forty-five species have been selected from a broad list containing all the main species in each region, i.e., the species that constitute 90% of the growing stock in the region. Similar inventory statistics for the regions are available at inventarioforestale.org/statistiche_INFC%20link. Estimates on the same variables for the inventory categories and for forest types at the national and regional levels are also available. All tables share the same criterion in listing the species, i.e., according to decreasing volume values. However, the residual class other species is always at the bottom and may consist of different species depending on the variable. Figures 9.1, 9.2 and 9.3 show the cumulative distribution of the number of trees (Fig. 9.1), the growing stock (Fig. 9.2) and the aboveground tree biomass (Fig. 9.3) in the Italian Forest for the main 45 species.

Table 9.1 Total number of trees, basal area, growing stock and aboveground tree biomass, carbon stock and annual increment by species in Forest for Italy / Valori totali del numero di alberi, area basimetrica, volume, fitomassa epigea, carbonio organico e incremento annuo per specie, per il Bosco in Italia
Fig. 9.1
figure 1

Cumulative frequency distribution of the number of trees for the 45 main species in the Italian Forest / Distribuzione di frequenza cumulata del numero di alberi per le 45 specie più abbondanti nel Bosco in Italia

Fig. 9.2
figure 2

Cumulative frequency distribution of the growing stock volume for the 45 main species in the Italian Forest / Distribuzione di frequenza cumulata del volume legnoso per le 45 specie più abbondanti nel Bosco italiano

Fig. 9.3
figure 3

Cumulative frequency distribution of the aboveground tree biomass for the 45 main species in the Italian Forest / Distribuzione di frequenza cumulata della biomassa arborea epigea per le 45 specie più abbondanti nel Bosco italiano

The figures show that 85% of growing stock and aboveground tree biomass is due to 17 species; except for Pinus laricio Poiret, they are all on the list of 27 species that constitutes 85% of the number of trees. The same species are also the most important in terms of annual volume increment, and this is consistent with studies that showed volume as the main predictive variable in the increment estimation (e.g., Bevilacqua, 1999; Gasparini et al., 2017); altogether, the 17 species make up 80% of the annual increment.

Beech is the most highly represented species of the Italian Forest. For the considered characteristics, basal area is 15.2% of the total, growing stock volume is 18.1%, aboveground tree biomass is 20.7% and annual volume increment is 14.2%. Finally, numerosity of subjects is 10.8% of the total, and in second position of the list. The second most represented species in terms of basal area, growing stock volume, aboveground tree biomass and annual volume increment is the Norway spruce. It represents 3.4% of the total number of trees, 10.2% of basal area, 15.3% of growing stock, 11.1% of aboveground tree biomass and 11.8% of annual volume increment. Chestnut and Turkey oak are the two following species and their relative position changes depending on the variables considered. Chestnuts account for 6.2% of Italian Forest trees, 9.6% of basal area, 9.0% of growing stock volume, 8.1% of aboveground tree biomass and 9.9% of annual volume increment. Turkey oak trees constitute 7.6% of the total, 8.2% of basal area, 8.1% of growing stock volume, 9.4% of aboveground tree biomass and 9.2% of annual volume increment. Beech, Norway spruce, chestnut and Turkey oak together account for slightly more than 50% of growing stock volume and aboveground tree biomass of the Italian Forest, and 45.5% of its annual volume increment.

These four species characterise four forest types. The abundance of a species in the proper forest type is variable but always consistent: basal area ranges from 76.6% for Turkey oak in the Mediterranean oaks type to 89.0% for beech in the Beech forest type. Figure 9.4. shows the percentage of the basal area of the four species in the Tall trees forest types, and groups all others in the class other types; the figure has been drawn in such a way as to improve readability by limiting the X-axis.

Fig. 9.4
figure 4

Percentage breakdown of the main four species basal area in the forest types. X-axis was limited to 8% to improve readability; exceeding values are given in numbers / Ripartizione percentuale dell'area basimetrica delle quattro specie principali nelle categorie forestali. L'asse delle ascisse è stato limitato al valore 8% per migliorarne la leggibilità; i valori eccedenti sono mostrati in numero

The group of species that constitutes 85% of the total number of trees is wider and lists 27 species. This is due to the presence of small-sized species, often found as stools in pure or mixed coppice stands.

Some of the 45 main species described are exotic species. Black locust (Robinia pseudacacia L.) is a species long time naturalised with a relevant number of trees (2.5% of the total), 1.6% of growing stock volume, 1.9% of aboveground tree biomass and 2.7% of annual volume increment. Eucaliptus spp. trees (0.3% of the total growing stock and 0.6% of the annual volume increment) and Douglas fir (0.6% of the total growing stock and 0.6% of the annual volume increment), are planted species with a more limited occurrence.

9.3 Stands Origin

By stand origin INFC means the naturality of the regeneration process, i.e., the intensity of human intervention to favour or assist regeneration. Table 9.2 shows the three classes adopted. Tables 9.3 and 9.4 show the estimates on Forest and on Other wooded land area by stand origin. Tables 9.5 and 9.6 show corresponding statistics for Tall trees forest and Plantations. Tables 9.7 and 9.8 show the estimates for the inventory categories of Other wooded land. The inventory statistics on the Tall trees forest types area by stand origin are available at inventarioforestale.org/statistiche_INFC.

Table 9.2 Stand origin classes / Origine delle fitocenosi
Table 9.3 Forest area by stand origin / Estensione del Bosco ripartito per l'origine dei soprassuoli
Table 9.4 Other wooded land area by stand origin / Estensione delle Altre terre boscate ripartite per l'origine dei soprassuoli
Table 9.5 Tall trees forest area by stand origin / Estensione dei Boschi alti ripartiti per l'origine dei soprassuoli
Table 9.6 Plantations area by stand origin / Estensione degli Impianti di arboricoltura da legno ripartiti per l'origine dei soprassuoli
Table 9.7 Short trees forest, Sparse forest and Scrubland area by stand origin / Estensione di Boschi bassi, Boschi radi e Boscaglie ripartiti per l'origine dei soprassuoli
Table 9.8 Shrubs area by stand origin and Not accessible or not classified wooded area / Estensione degli Arbusteti ripartiti per l'origine dei soprassuoli e delle Aree boscate inaccessibili o non classificate

Forests are mainly semi-natural in Italy, that is regeneration is obtained or guided by silvicultural activity. Semi-natural forests amount to 68.0% at the national level but this is also the prevailing origin for stands in all the regions except Sicilia (27.7%), where it is in the second position after the natural origin class (36.8%). Calabria and Puglia are the only two remaining regions where the percentage of semi-natural stands does not reach 50%, although it is rather close (48.8% and 48.4%, respectively). Natural stands make 17.1% of Forest area. Variability among the regions is also rather high in this class, but natural stands remain the second widest area in all regions except Molise, where the percentage of planted forests is slightly higher. Natural stands are those originating after a natural disaster, e.g., forest fires, and without human intervention, but they also begin from primary or secondary successions, which are very important for forest expansion.

Comparisons between Fig. 9.5, which shows the percentage of the three stand origin classes for Forest, and Fig. 9.6, which is the equivalent for Other wooded land, show that importance of semi-natural and natural origin is inverted between Forest and Other wooded land, although the relevant unclassified percent area in the Other wooded land must be considered. However, the predominance of natural stands in Other wooded land may be mainly ascribed to tree colonisation of former agricultural lands where human interventions to guide regeneration are still limited (exception for Molise and Sardegna). Some of the stands on Other wooded land will develop into true forests and this dynamic explains in part the naturally originated forest area. To some extent, naturally originated forests may be considered an intermediate condition that lasts from the time when they transit from the Other wooded land to Forest (by reaching the threshold values of the parameters that are relevant under the adopted definitions) to the time when silviculture becomes an option under an economical point of view. Planted forests are 6.3% of the Forest area at the national level and this percentage is not reached in most regions. Sicilia is an exception because that percentage is the highest among all regions (27.4% of Forest area), but it is also rather close to the semi-natural Forest area (27.7%). As expected, in the Other wooded land the artificial origin class is absent in many regions and very limited in the others.

Fig. 9.5
figure 5

Percent of area of Forest by stand origin / Ripartizione percentuale della superficie del Bosco per origine del soprassuolo

Fig. 9.6
figure 6

Percent of area of Other wooded land by stand origin / Ripartizione percentuale della superficie delle Altre terre boscate per origine del soprassuolo

9.4 Deadwood

INFC2015 has estimated the three components of deadwood as standing dead trees, deadwood lying on the ground and stumps (Fig. 9.7) according to size thresholds generally consistent with those adopted in the international reporting (e.g., FAO, 2018). Under these thresholds, the three components combined are usually referred to as coarse woody debris. For each component, INFC2015 provides information on volume, deadwood biomass and organic carbon; standing dead trees and stumps are also estimated in terms of number. Tables with the estimates on the number and volume of standing dead trees (Tables 9.9 and 9.10) and on the number and volume of stumps (Tables 9.11 and 9.12) are shown, as well as those on the volume of the lying deadwood (lying coarse woody debris, Table 9.13) and coarse woody debris total volume (Table 9.14) for Forest. Analogue statistics for the forest types are available at inventarioforestale.org/statistiche_INFC. Estimates on the deadwood biomass and the carbon stocked by the three deadwood components for either the inventory categories or the forest types of Forest are also available.

Fig. 9.7
figure 7

The deadwood component measured by INFC: a standing dead trees, b lying deadwood, and c stumps / Componenti di legno morto misurate da INFC: alberi morti in piedi (a), legno morto grosso a terra (b) e ceppaie residue (c)

Table 9.9 Total number and number per hectare of standing dead trees by Forest inventory category / Valori totali e per ettaro del numero di alberi morti in piedi per le categorie inventariali del Bosco
Table 9.10 Total volume and volume per hectare of standing dead trees by Forest inventory category / Valori totali e per ettaro del volume degli alberi morti in piedi per le categorie inventariali del Bosco
Table 9.11 Total number and number per hectare of stumps by Forest inventory category / Valori totali e per ettaro del numero di ceppaie residue per le categorie inventariali del Bosco
Table 9.12 Total volume and volume per hectare of stumps by Forest inventory category / Valori totali e per ettaro del volume delle ceppaie residue per le categorie inventariali del Bosco
Table 9.13 Total volume and volume per hectare of lying coarse woody debris by Forest inventory category / Valori totali e per ettaro del volume del legno morto grosso a terra per le categorie inventariali del Bosco
Table 9.14 Total volume and volume per hectare of coarse woody debris by Forest inventory category / Valori totali e per ettaro del volume del legno morto grosso totale per le categorie inventariali del Bosco

There are 1.37 billion standing dead trees in the Italian Forest, 150.3 ha−1 on average. The number of standing dead trees is 11.9% of the living trees; however, that percentage is variable among the regions (from 2.5% of Puglia to 20.7% of Liguria). The regional data of standing dead trees plotted on the living ones are well interpolated through a power function (Fig. 9.8).

Fig. 9.8
figure 8

Relationship between the number of standing dead trees and that of living trees in the Italian regions / Relazione tra il numero degli alberi morti in piedi e il numero degli alberi vivi nelle regioni italiane

Standing dead trees amount to 67.3 million m3, 7.4 m3 ha−1 on average. Lying deadwood is the second component in forests, with a total value of 51.8 million m3, 5.7 m3 ha−1 on average. Stumps are 783.8 million in numbers (86.3 ha−1 on average) for a total volume of 14.0 million m3 (1.5 m3 ha−1).

Per hectare values in the forest types of the Tall trees forest show that in general lying deadwood is the main component of conifer forests while standing dead tree deadwood is the most abundant in the broadleaved forests (Fig. 9.9); exceptions are the Mediterranean pines forests and the Hygrophilous forests.

Fig. 9.9
figure 9

Volume per hectare of coarse woody debris by component, in the Tall trees forest types / Volume per ettaro delle componenti di legno morto grosso, nelle categorie dei Boschi alti

Chestnut forests are marked by a very high value of trees per hectare (486.5 n ha−1 on average; Hornbeam and Hophornbeam forest type follows with 193.9 n ha−1), and their timber volume of 28.6 m3 ha−1 is more than twice that of any other forest type. Lying deadwood is also abundant, especially if compared to that of the broadleaved species forest types. The copious amount of deadwood in Chestnut forests had been detected in the past NFI (INFC2005) and explained by the devastating diseases infecting the species (Pignatti & De Natale, 2011).

Except the Chestnut forest type, there is more coarse woody debris in the Alpine coniferous forest; a similar amount is found for broadleaved species types only in the Hygrophilous forests. These are especially rich in lying deadwood (11.5 m3 ha−1), but their value in standing dead trees is also relevant (8.3 m3 ha−1) falling in second place only after that of Chestnut forest.

Stump volume is particularly abundant in the Alpine forest types of Larch and stone pine, Norway spruce and Fir. This is also due to the occurrence of such species on steep slopes so that at ground level cut line in the uphill side may correspond to a very high stump height on the downhill side.

Abundance of the three components may also be compared through their relative deadwood biomass. Numerousness and volume are more closely linked to ecological functions, such as biodiversity and others, while deadwood biomass is more closely related to the carbon stock function, that is discussed in Chap. 12. It is noteworthy that the relative abundance of the three components may vary consistently if their biomass is used instead, because of the variable wood density values of the species and the decay class.

9.5 Wooded Lands in Protected Areas

During the inventory survey, when an inventory point was within a naturalistic protected area, the presence of naturalistic constraints was recorded. The main normative references for the definition of protected natural areas and the consequent naturalistic constraints are the Outline Law 394/91 at a national level, and the European Directives concerning ‘Birds’ (79/409/CEE) and ‘Habitats’ (92/43/CEE), adopted in Italy by Law 157/92 and Decree 357/97. The Convention on Wetlands of International Importance especially as Waterfowl Habitat, signed in Ramsar in 1971 and adopted in Italy by Decree No. 448/76, must be considered in addition to the above-mentioned regulations. The different types of protected areas identified by these rules, and their definitions, are provided in Table 9.15, while in Table 9.16 the different levels of protection are defined for national parks and Natura2000 sites.

Table 9.15 Types of protected areas
Table 9.16 Protected areas and their classification as to level of protection / Classi relative al grado di protezione in aree protette

INFC2015 estimates 3.5 million hectares of wooded area are in protected areas, 31.8% of the national Total wooded area, of which 2.8 million hectares are Forest and almost 700,000 ha are Other wooded land. Figure 9.10 shows the area of Forest and Other wooded land included in the different types of protected areas. According to the national classification, different types of protection status may overlap on the same area. Natura2000 sites, for example, which spread over 3 million hectares of wooded lands (2.4 million hectares in Forest, about 600,000 hectares in Other wooded land), are often within national or regional parks and reserves.

Fig. 9.10
figure 10

Area of Forest and Other wooded land included in different types of protected areas, at national level / Estensione del Bosco e delle Altre terre boscate, a livello nazionale, ripartita per tipo di area protetta

The percentage of protected wooded land (Table 9.17, Fig. 9.11) is considerable in all Italian regions, but it is remarkable in some regions of central and southern Italy: more than 50% in Abruzzo, Campania, Puglia, and Sicilia. In the Alpine regions, which are marked by a higher forest cover, the percentage of protected wooded land is generally less than the national average, except for Veneto, which hosts 42.9% of its wooded lands in protected areas. The estimates on wooded lands in the different types of protected areas by inventory categories, as well as those on Tall trees forest types area by presence of naturalistic constraints, are available at inventarioforestale.org/statistiche_INFC.

Table 9.17 Forest and Other wooded land area included in protected areas / Superficie del Bosco e delle Altre terre boscate inclusa in aree protette
Fig. 9.11
figure 11

Percent of area of Forest and Other wooded land included in protected areas / Ripartizione percentuale della superficie del Bosco e delle Altre terre boscate inclusa in aree protette

Tables 9.18, 9.19 and 9.20 detail the area under naturalistic constraints at the inventory category level. All inventory categories have similar portions of protected areas, ranging between 30 and 35%, except from Plantations (23.4%).

Table 9.18 Area of inventory categories of Forest included in protected areas / Superficie delle categorie inventariali del Bosco inclusa in aree protette
Table 9.19 Area of Short trees forest, Sparse forests and Scrublands included in protected areas / Superficie di Boschi bassi, Boschi radi e Boscaglie inclusa in aree protette
Table 9.20 Shrubs area included in protected areas / Superficie degli Arbusteti inclusa in aree protette

Wooded lands within national parks are about 920,000 hectares: 725,000 ha in Forest (8.0%), 195,000 ha in Other wooded land (9.9%). At the regional level, this distribution varies considerably (Table 9.21), as it is conditioned by the distribution of the total area of the national parks. The rate of Forest in national parks is particularly high in three regions of central-southern Italy: Puglia (42.2%), Abruzzo (32.3%) and Calabria (26.2%). Table 9.22 (Forest) and Table 9.23 (Other wooded land) show the distribution of forest area in national parks by protection level. Considering Forest alone, Fig. 9.12 shows that the majority of protected area in national parks falls into Zone C (24.0%). Moreover, only 56.3% of such area is assigned to a specific class, while the remaining 43.7% is not classified to a specific protection level.

Table 9.21 Forest and Other wooded land area included in National parks / Superficie di Bosco e delle Altre terre boscate inclusa in Parchi nazionali
Table 9.22 Forest area included in National parks by protection level / Superficie del Bosco inclusa in Parchi nazionali, ripartita per grado di protezione
Table 9.23 Other wooded land area included in National parks by protection level / Superficie delle Altre terre boscate inclusa in Parchi nazionali, ripartita per grado di protezione
Fig. 9.12
figure 12

Percentage area of Forest into national parks by different protection levels / Ripartizione percentuale del Bosco incluso in parchi nazionali, per grado di protezione

State nature reserves host 74,963 ha of the total wooded area, corresponding to 0.7% (Table 9.24). A similar rate (0.6%) is obtained when considering only the Forest. These Forest areas are concentrated in five regions: Tuscany, Lazio, Veneto, Abruzzo and Calabria, which constitute over 70% of the total.

Table 9.24 Forest and Other wooded land area included in State nature reserves / Superficie di Bosco e Altre terre boscate inclusa in Riserve naturali statali

Forests in regional nature parks (Table 9.25) cover a total of 713,048 ha of the total forest area, 592,554 ha of which is Forest (6.5%). The distribution at the regional level is rather variable: in Sicilia and Campania, for example, 28.6% and 24.6% of the Forest, respectively, is protected by regional parks.

Table 9.25 Forest and Other wooded land area included in Regional nature parks / Superficie di Bosco e Altre terre boscate inclusa in Parchi naturali regionali

The total forest area included in regional nature reserves is 1.1% (125,572 ha, Table 9.26). Very low values are observed for all regions, except for Sicilia, where 11.4% of Forest falls into this type of reserves.

Table 9.26 Forest and Other wooded land area included in Regional nature reserves / Superficie di Bosco e Altre terre boscate inclusa in Riserve naturali regionali

A very small wooded area, 60,932 ha (Table 9.27, 0.6% of the total) is included in the other protected natural areas under the Law n.394/91.

Table 9.27 Forest and Other wooded land area included in Other natural protected areas / Superficie di Bosco e Altre terre boscate inclusa in Altre aree naturali protette

Natura2000 sites (SCI and SPA) host 27.2% of wooded areas (3,011,119 ha), 2,408,882 ha of which are in Forest (Table 9.28). The regions with the largest rates, considering the regional wooded lands area, are Puglia (63.0%), Campania (51.0%), Abruzzo (50.7%), Sicilia (45.5%), and Veneto (45.2%). More detailed estimates on wooded land areas in SCI and SPA can be found at inventarioforestale.org/statistiche_INFC.

Table 9.28 Forest and Other wooded land area included in NATURA2000 sites (SCI and SPA) / Superficie di Bosco e Altre terre boscate inclusa in siti (SIC e ZPS) della rete NATURA2000

Table 9.29 shows Forest and Other wooded land area included in Wetlands of international interest (Ramsar Convention), which together account for about 5000 ha in the whole country.

Table 9.29 Forest and Other wooded land area included in Wetlands of international importance (Ramsar Convention) / Superficie di Bosco e Altre terre boscate inclusa in Zone umide di interesse internazionale (Convenzione di Ramsar)

Finally, although the national classification of protected areas is not fully comparable to that adopted for European reporting (MCPFE, 2003). Figure 9.13 shows the percentage of distribution of Forest area by mutually exclusive protection level classes, comparable to the MCPFE classes and used for Italy in the State of Europe's Forest 2011 (Forest Europe, UNECE and FAO, 2011), for indicator 4.9. For such classifications, more detailed inventory statistics are available at inventarioforestale.org/statistiche_INFC.

Fig. 9.13
figure 13

Percentage area of Forest by protection level classes comparable to MCPFE classes / Ripartizione percentuale del Bosco secondo classi del livello di protezione confrontabili con la classificazione MCPFE