Keywords

10.1 Introduction

Different disturbances of nature (biotic or abiotic) and intensity are an integral part of forest ecosystem dynamics (Seidl et al., 2017). The alteration of forest structure, composition and function allows young and old forests (trees) to turn over and create heterogeneity, promoting biodiversity and ecosystem renewal or reorganisation (Thom et al., 2017; White & Pickett, 1985). Nevertheless, beyond a certain limit, disturbances can cause serious ecological or economic damages, causing the interruption of some forest functions (protection, landscape, timber and wood production, etc.). A forest management policy, aimed at the prevention and mitigation of natural disturbances, is usually considered essential (Motta, 2018).

The main disturbances that can damage the health of forests, causing their degradation or limiting their functionality, can derive both from natural biotic or abiotic factors (pests, grazing and browsing, fires, windstorms, floods, severe snow, etc.) and from profound changes in the territory and the environment caused by human activities, due for example to pollution or to the excessive exploitation of the forest in terms of wood and timber utilisation or for recreational use.

Because of climate change, which triggers more and more extreme climate events (strong rainstorms, floods, windstorms, heatwaves, etc.), forest vulnerability is increasing. Today, the frequency of extreme climate events is three times higher than 50 years ago (FAO, 2021). This creates a reduction in plant defence mechanisms (Forzieri et al., 2021). Climate change can also be responsible for the spread of pathogenic species in environments where they were not present, causing worrisome epidemics of animal and plant parasites.

Forest health monitoring is a prerequisite for adequately defining forest management practices aimed at improving forest resilience and adaptation capacity. In the Italian national forest inventory, the health of forest stands is detected through the direct observation in the field of the presence of damage or pathologies on the trees included in a plot (AdS25, cf. Chap. 4) to estimate the areas of the Forest involved (Gasparini et al., 2013). Any signals are considered, both as an alteration resulting from the action of a damaging agent (e.g., lesions, necrosis, defoliation) and in the form of signs of the presence of a damage factor (nests of larva, insects, fungi, etc.). The survey refers to the presence of pathologies or damages occurring in the survey's year or previously, but whose effects are still observable.

According to INFC, pathologies and damages are considered “visible” when they affect at least 30% of the crown coverage of the analysed stand, with reference to the subjects (trees and shrubs) with DBH ≥ 4.5 cm. For these cases, in addition to the presence, the severity of the pathology or damage, the origin (which can be biotic or abiotic) and, if defoliation is present, its degree and localization on the affected trees are also assessed.

In this chapter, the estimate of the Forest area by pathology and damaging diffusion, severity and cause are presented. Estimates of Forest area affected by defoliation are also presented, by degree and localisation of defoliation. Area estimates of damage presence and diffusion for the inventory categories of Forest and the forest categories of the Tall trees forest, the latter at the national level, are also available at inventarioforestale.org/statistiche_INFC.

10.2 Diffusion and Severity of Damages

The third Italian national forest inventory INFC2015 classifies the presence of pathologies and damages according to classes of their degree of diffusion, measured as percentage of crown coverage affected: absence of damages, damages on less than 30% of the crown coverage, damages on 30–59% of the crown coverage and damages on at least 60% of the crown coverage.

Table 10.1 at the end of this chapter provides estimates on Forest area by degree of damage diffusion. Estimates show that almost 80% of the Forest area is not affected by pathologies or damage and 15.6% of the area is affected by minor damage on less than 30% of the crown coverage. Overall, the Forest area without damage or pathologies or with minor damage is equal to 94.9% of the total. The Forest area with visible (affected crown coverage 30–59%) and very visible (at least 60% crown coverage affected) damages is equal to 3.3% and 1.0% of the total, respectively.

Table 10.1 Forest area by degree of damage diffusion / Estensione del Bosco ripartito per grado di diffusione di patologie e danni

Estimates at the regional level differ partially from national ones.Footnote 1 Umbria is the region least affected by damages and pathologies (99.2% of the Forest area not affected or with minor damages), followed by Molise (99.1%), Valle d'Aosta (98.6%), Basilicata (98.4%), Trentino (98.3%) and Abruzzo (98.1%). The regions most affected by visible or very visible damage are Piemonte (8.7 and 1.9% of the area, respectively), Emilia-Romagna (8.0 and 1.3%), Liguria (6.7 and 1.8%), Calabria (2.7 and 4.2%) and Sardegna (5.3 and 1.1%) (Fig. 10.1).

Fig. 10.1
figure 1

Percentage of the Forest area by degree of diffusion of damages or pathologies / Ripartizione percentuale del Bosco per grado di diffusione di patologie o danni

Damage severity was assessed by estimating the proportion of the damaged aboveground components (foliage, branches and stem) compared to the normal conditions that trees should present in that context (Table 10.2). Only permanent and lasting damage and not temporary damage (just on foliage, for example) were taken into account. The severity of the damage, as mentioned above, was assessed only in forests with visible or very visible damages (at least 30% of the crown coverage affected).

Table 10.2 Classes of damage severity / Classi di intensità di patologie e danni

At the end of this chapter, estimates of Forest area by damage severity are given in Table 10.3. Excluding the not classified or not assessed area, the most frequent class is that of medium damage (52.8% of the assessed Forest area), followed by the class of severe damage (34.4%). At the regional level, in Molise and Basilicata the entire Forest area assessed for the severity of the damage is affected by severe damage. In Umbria and Valle d'Aosta, on the other hand, the entire assessed area is affected by medium severity damages (Fig. 10.2).

Table 10.3 Forest area by damage severity; it is assessed when more than 30% of the crown coverage is affected by damages or pathologies / Estensione del Bosco ripartito per intensità di patologie o danni; viene valutata quando questi interessano più del 30% della copertura delle chiome
Fig. 10.2
figure 2

Percentage of the assessed Forest area by classes of damage severity / Ripartizione percentuale della superficie del Bosco valutato per classi di intensità di patologie o danni

10.3 Damaging Causes

The causes of damages and pathologies are identified by observing traces or evident signs (cf. Table 10.4). If the cause is not clearly recognisable or there is a concomitant action of several factors, none of which prevails, the class ‘unknown or complex causes’ is assigned. If, among many, there is a prevalent or triggering cause, then this one is indicated.

Table 10.4 Damaging causes and related signs of recognition / Cause di danni o patologie e segni per la loro individuazione

Table 10.5 gives the estimates of Forest area by damaging cause. At the national level, the main disturbances are pests and diseases caused by insects, fungi, bacteria, mycoplasma, viruses (33.8% of the assessed Forest area), followed by extreme climate events (26.5%) and forest fires on crowns (20.7%) (Fig. 10.3).

Table 10.5 Forest area by damaging causes; it is assessed when more than 30% of the crown coverage is affected by damages or pathologies / Estensione del Bosco ripartito per causa di danni o patologie; viene valutata quando questi interessano più del 30% della copertura delle chiome
Fig. 10.3
figure 3

Percentage of the assessed Forest area by damaging causes at the national level / Ripartizione percentuale della superficie del Bosco valutato per causa di patologie o danni, a livello nazionale

The effect of the different causes of damage is variable at the regional level. Nevertheless, the main disturbances belong to the three most relevant causes at the national level.

10.4 Defoliation and Its Localization

If pathologies or damage effects are manifested as defoliation, then its degree and localization are observed on some representative sample trees (up to three), according to the INFC field protocol.

The degree of defoliation is defined as the level of transparency of the crown, compared to the normal conditions that trees should present in that context, for that species and in that period. It is classified according to four classes: defoliation absent or ≤10%, defoliation equal to 11–25%, 26–60% of greater than 60%. The evaluation of the localization concerns, instead, the indication of the areas of the crown affected by the defoliation (Table 10.6). It is assessed if the degree of defoliation is greater than 10%.

Table 10.6 Classes of localization of defoliation / Classi di localizzazione della defogliazione

Tables 10.7 and 10.8 show the estimates of Forest area by degree and localization of defoliation, respectively. Forest area affected by defoliation ≤10% is equal to 34.3% of the assessed area, while the upper classes of defoliation respectively affect 24.4%, 24.6% and 16.8% of the assessed area (Fig. 10.4).

Table 10.7 Forest area by degree of defoliation; it is assessed when more than 30% of the crown coverage is affected by damages or pathologies / Estensione del Bosco ripartito per grado di defogliazione; viene valutato quando patologie o danni interessano più del 30% della copertura delle chiome
Table 10.8 Forest area by classes of localization of defoliation; it is assessed when more than 30% of the crown coverage is affected by damages or pathologies and more than 10% of the foliage is missing / Estensione del Bosco ripartito per localizzazione della defogliazione; viene valutata quando patologie o danni interessano più del 30% della copertura delle chiome e quando risulta mancante più del 10% del fogliame
Fig. 10.4
figure 4

Percentage of the assessed Forest area by degree of defoliation / Ripartizione percentuale della superficie del Bosco valutato per il grado di defogliazione

The Forest area characterized by a homogeneous distribution of defoliation over the entire canopy is equal to 66.7% of the assessed area, while 19.8% of the assessed Forest area is characterized by defoliation on the apical portion of the canopy (Fig. 10.5).

Fig. 10.5
figure 5

Percentage of the assessed Forest area by localization of defoliation at the national level / Ripartizione percentuale della superficie del Bosco valutato per la localizzazione della defogliazione, a livello nazionale