Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Transition to Adulthood for Adolescents and Young Adults with Autism: Can We Improve Outcomes?

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Handbook of Quality of Life for Individuals with Autism Spectrum Disorder

Part of the book series: Autism and Child Psychopathology Series ((ACPS))

Abstract

The 2004 Transition Planning Requirements of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) requires the development of educational programming designed to transition each student with autism to an included and productive adulthood post-graduation. Yet, overall, outcomes for many adults on the spectrum continue to fall short of both our hopes and the expectations of students and families. This means that every year, a large and diverse group of autistic adults graduate into an adult world of limited opportunities and choices, and few evidence-based programs, services, and supports. This chapter provides an overview of the IDEA mandated transition and offers recommendations as to how the system might, most readily, be improved.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 299.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 379.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 379.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Notes

  1. 1.

    Note: Throughout this document the term “autism” or “autistic” is used to refer to those individuals on the autism spectrum whose degree of cognitive and behavioral involvement would result in a diagnosis of Severity Level 2 or 3 under DSM-V Guidelines (American Psychiatric Association, 2013).

References

  • Alberto, P., Troutman, A. C., & Axe, J. B. (2013). Applied behavior analysis for teachers. Pearson.

    Google Scholar 

  • Allen, K. D., Wallace, D. P., Greene, D. J., Bowen, S. L., & Burke, R. V. (2010). Community-based vocational instruction using videotaped modeling for young adults with autism spectrum disorders performing in air-inflated mascots. Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities, 25, 186–192. https://doi.org/10.1177/1088357610377318

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990. P.L. 101-336. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission. Regulations of the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990, July 26, 1991.

    Google Scholar 

  • American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.). https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.books.9780890425596

  • Anderson, K. A., Sosnowy, C., Kuo, A. A., & Shattuck, P. T. (2018). Transition of individuals with autism to adulthood: A review of qualitative studies. Pediatrics, 141, S318–S327. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2016-4300I

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Anderson, C., Butt, C., & Sarsony, C. (2021). Young adults on the autism spectrum and early employment-related experiences: Aspirations and obstacles. Journal of autism and developmental disorders, 51(1), 88–105. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-020-04513-4

  • Baer, D. M., Wolf, M. M., & Risley, T. R. (1968). Some current dimensions of applied behavior analysis. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 1(1), 91-97. https://doi.org/10.1901/jaba.1968.1-91

  • Behavior Analyst Certification Board (BACB). (2017). BCBA/BCaBA task list (5th ed.). Author.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bennett, K. D., Dukes, C. A. (2014). Systematic Review of Teaching Daily Living Skills to Adolescents and Adults with Autism Spectrum Disorder. Review Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders 1, 2–10. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40489-013-0004-3

  • Bishop-Fitzpatrick, L., Minshew, N. J., & Eack, S. M. (2013). A systematic review of psychosocial interventions for adults with autism spectrum disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 43, 687–694. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-012-1615-8

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Burgess, S., & Cimera, R. E. (2014). Employment outcomes of transition-aged adults with autism spectrum disorders: A state of the states report. American journal on intellectual and developmental disabilities, 119, 64–83. https://doi.org/10.1352/1944-7558-119.1.64

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chen, J. L., Leader, G., Sung, C., et al. (2015). Trends in employment for individuals with autism spectrum disorder: A review of the research literature. Review Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 2, 115–127. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40489-014-0041-6

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cimera, R. E., Burgess, S., & Wiley, A. (2013). Does providing transition services early enable students with ASD to achieve better vocational outcomes as adults? Research and Practice for Individuals with Severe Disabilities, 38, 88–93. https://doi.org/10.2511/027494813807714474

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Clarke, E. B., McCauley, J. B., & Lord, C. (2021). Post–high school daily living skills in autism spectrum disorder. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 60, 978–985. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaac.2020.11.008

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Clees, T. J., & Gast, D. L. (1994). Social safety skills instruction for individuals with disabilities: A sequential model. Education and Treatment of Children, 163–184. https://www.jstor.org/stable/42899351

  • Dixon, M. R. (2014). The next generation of ABA providers. Behavior Analysis in Practice, 7, 145–146. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40617-014-0009-0

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Ferraioli, S. J., & Harris, S. L. (2011). Effective educational inclusion of students on the autism spectrum. Journal of Contemporary Psychotherapy, 41, 19–28. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10879-010-9156-y

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fong, C. J., Taylor, J., Berdyyeva, A., McClelland, A. M., Murphy, K. M., & Westbrook, J. D. (2021). Interventions for improving employment outcomes for persons with autism spectrum disorders: A systematic review update. Campbell Systematic Reviews, 17, 1185–1208. https://doi.org/10.1002/cl2.1185

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fordyce-Voorham, S. (2009). Essential food skills required in a skill-based healthy eating program. Journal of the Home Economics Institute of Autralia, 16, 16–20.

    Google Scholar 

  • Friman, P., Wilson, K. G., & Hayes, S. C. (1998). Behavior analysis of private events is possible, progressive, and nondualistic: A response to lamal. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 31, 707. https://doi.org/10.1901/jaba.1998.31-137

    Article  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Gerhardt, P. F., Zawacki, J., & Satriale, G. (2013). Adaptive behavior in adolescents and adults with autism spectrum disorders. In Gerhardt, P. F. & Crimmins, D. (Eds.) Social Skill and Adaptive Behavior Intervention with Learners with Autism. pp. 159–170. Baltimore.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gerhardt, P. F., & Rodriguez, A. (2018, May 25). Adulthood begins in preschool: Identification and intervention with skills that support competent adulthood (Full Day Workshop). Association for Behavior Analysis International.

    Google Scholar 

  • Goehner, A. L. (2011). A generation of autism, coming of age. New York Times, 4–13.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gunning, C., Holloway, J., Fee, B., Breathnach, Ó., Bergin, C. M., Greene, I., & Bheoláin, R. N. (2019). A systematic review of generalization and maintenance outcomes of social skills intervention for preschool children with autism spectrum disorder. Review Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 6, 1–28. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40489-019-00162-1

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hedley, D., Uljarević, M., & Hedley, D. F. (2017). Employment and living with autism: Personal, social and economic impact. In S. Halder & L. C. Assaf (Eds.), Inclusion, disability and culture: An ethnographic perspective traversing abilities and challenges (pp. 295–311). Springer.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Hendricks, D. (2010). Employment and adults with autism spectrum disorders: Challenges and strategies for success. Journal of Vocational Rehabilitation, 32, 125–134. https://doi.org/10.3233/JVR-2010-0502

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hernandez, C., & Kulkarni, S. S. (2018). Social skills and students with moderate to severe disabilities: Can community based instruction help? Journal of the American Academy of Special Education Professionals, 6, 22.

    Google Scholar 

  • Heward, W. L. (2009). Exceptional children: An introduction to special education (9th ed.). Merrill/Prentice Hall.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hollins, N., & Peterson, S. (2021). The role of behavior analysts in providing equitable services for clients in public schools. In A scientific framework for compassion and social justice: Lessons in applied behavior analysis (p. 16). Routledge

    Google Scholar 

  • Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA). (2004). 20 U.S.C. § 1400

    Google Scholar 

  • Iwata, B. A., & Dozier, C. L. (2008). Clinical application of functional analysis methodology. Behavior Analysis in Practice, 1, 3–9. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03391714

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Jessel, J., Hanley, G. P., & Ghaemmaghami, M. (2016). Interview-informed synthesized contingency analyses: Thirty replications and reanalysis. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 49, 576–595. https://doi.org/10.1002/jaba.316

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kauffman, J. M., Anastasiou, D., & Maag, J. W. (2016). Special education at the crossroad: An identity crisis and the need for a scientific reconstruction. Exceptionality. https://doi.org/10.1080/09362835.2016.1238380

  • Kaufman, J. M. (1993). How we might achieve the radical reform of special education. Exceptional Children, 60, 6–16. https://doi.org/10.1177/001440299306000102

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lai, M. C., Anagnostou, E., Wiznitzer, M., Allison, C., & Baron-Cohen, S. (2020). Evidence-based support for autistic people across the lifespan: Maximising potential, minimising barriers, and optimising the person–environment fit. The Lancet Neurology, 19, 434–451. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1474-4422(20)30034-X

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Leaf, J. B., Leaf, R., McEachin, J., Taubman, M., Ala’i-Rosales, S., Ross, R., Smith, T., & Weiss, M. J. (2016). Applied behavior analysis is a science and, therefore, progressive. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 46, 720–731. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-015-2591-6

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Leaf, J. B., Cihon, J. H., Leaf, R., McEachin, J., & Taubman, M. (2017). A progressive approach to discrete trial teaching: Some current guidelines. International Electronic Journal of Elementary Education, 9, 361–372. https://www.iejee.com/index.php/IEJEE/article/view/163

  • Max, C., & Lambright, N. (2021) Board certified behavior analysts and school fidelity of applied behavior analysis services: Qualitative findings. International Journal of Developmental Disabilities. Published Online: 24 May 2021. https://doi.org/10.1080/20473869.2021.1926854

  • Mazefsky, C. A., Williams, D. L., & Minshew, N. J. (2008). Variability in adaptive behavior in autism: Evidence for the importance of family history. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 36, 591–599. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-007-9202-8

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Mazzotti, V. L., Rowe, D. A., Kwiatek, S., et al. (2021). Secondary transition predictors of postschool success: An update to the research base. Career Development and Transition for Exceptional Individuals, 44, 47–64. https://doi.org/10.1177/2165143420959793

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McCollin, M. J., & Obiakor, F. E. (2010). Transition: Why it does not work. In F. E. Obiakor, J. P. Bakkem, & F. Rotatori (Eds.), Current issues and trends in special education: Research, technology, and teacher preparation (pp. 163–174). Emerald Group Publishing Limited. https://doi.org/10.1108/S0270-4013(2010)0000020013

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • McDonnell, J., Hardman, M. L., Hightower, J., Keifer-O’Donnell, R., & Drew, C. (1993). Impact of community-based instruction on the development of adaptive behavior of secondary-level students with mental retardation. American Journal on Mental Retardation, 97, 575–584.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McGowan, L., Caraher, M., Raats, M., Lavelle, F., Hollywood, L., McDowel, D., Spence, M., McCloat, A., Mooney, E., & Dean, M. (2017). Domestic cooking and food skills: A review. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition, 57, 2412–2431. https://doi.org/10.1080/10408398.2015.1072495

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McMahon, M. X. H., Feldberg, Z. R., & Ardoin, S. P. (2021). Behavior analysis goes to school: Teacher acceptability of behavior-analytic language in behavioral consultation. Behavior Analysis in Practice, 14, 131–140. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40617-020-00508-w

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Meyer, A. T., Powell, P. S., Butera, N., Klinger, M. R., & Klinger, L. G. (2018). Brief report: Developmental trajectories of adaptive behavior in children and adolescents with ASD. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 48, 2870–2878. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-018-3538-5

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nadig, A., Flanagan, T., White, K., & Bhatnagar, S. (2018). Results of an an RCT on a transition support program for adults with ASD: Effectis on self-determination and quality of life. Autism Research, 11, 1712–1728. https://doi.org/10.1002/aur

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ninci, J., Neely, L. C., Hong, E. R. et al. (2015) Meta-analysis of Single-Case Research on Teaching Functional Living Skills to Individuals with ASD. Review Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 2, 184–198 https://doi.org/10.1007/s40489-014-0046-1

  • Perkins, E. A., & Berkman, K. A., (2012). Into the Unknown: Aging with Autism Spectrum Disorders. American Journal of Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities. 117, 478–496. https://doi.org/10.1352/1944-7558-117.6.478

  • Pfeiffer, B., Brusilovskly, E., Davidson, A., & Persch, A. (2018). Impact of person-environment fit on job satisfaction for working adults with autism spectrum disorders. Journal of Vocational Rehabilitation, 48, 49–57. https://doi.org/10.3233/JVR-170915

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Reichow, B. (2012). Overview of Meta-analyses on early intensive behavioral intervention for young children with autism spectrum disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 42, 512–520. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-011-1218-9

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Roux A. M., Shattuck P. T., Cooper B. P., et al. (2013). Postsecondary employment experiences among young adults with an autism spectrum disorder. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 52, 931–939. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaac.2013.05.019. PMID: 23972695; PMCID: PMC3753691.

  • Roux, A. M., Shattuck, P., Rast, J. E., Rava, J. A., & Anderson, K. A. (2015). National autism indicators report: Transition into young adulthood. Life Course Outcomes Research Program, A.J. Drexel Autism Institute, Drexel University1028-1037.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Ruddel, C. (n.d.). Transition begins in preschool. Work Ability Utah Medicaid Infrastructure Grant Presentation. Accessed on line on 1/2/22 at: https://slideplayer.com/slide/7749973/

  • Shattuck, P. T., Narendorf, S. C., Cooper, B., Sterzing, P. R., Wagner, M., & Taylor, J. L. (2012a). Postsecondary education and employment among youth with an autism spectrum disorder. Pediatrics, 129, 1042–1049. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2011-2864

  • Shattuck, P. T., Roux, A. M., Hudson, L. E., Taylor, J. L., Maenner, M. J., & Tran, J. (2012b). Services for adults with autism spectrum disorders. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 57, 284–291.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Shattuck, P. T., Lau, L., Anderson, K. A., & Kuo, A. A. (2018). A national research agenda for the transition of youth with autism. Pediatrics, 141(Supplement 4), S355–S361. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2016-4300M

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Shattuck, P. T., Rast, J. E., Roux, A. M., Anderson, K. A., Benevides, T., Garfield, T., McGhee Hassrick, E., & Kuo, A. (2020a). National autism indicators report: High school students on the autism spectrum. Life Course Outcomes Program, A.J. Drexel Autism Institute, Drexel University.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shattuck, P. T., Garfield, T., Roux, A. M., et al. (2020b). Services for adults with autism spectrum disorder: A systems perspective. Current Psychiatry Reports, 22, 13.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Shriver, M. D. (2019). Applied behavior analysis in education: The role of the board certified behavior analyst. In S. G. Little & A. Akin-Little (Eds.), Behavioral interventions in schools: Evidence-based positive strategies (pp. 133–142). American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/0000126-008

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Snell-Rood, C., Ruble, L., Kleinert, H., McGrew, J. H., Adams, M., Rodgers, A., Odom, J., Wong, W. H., & Yu, Y. (2020). Stakeholder perspectives on transition planning, implementation, and outcomes for students with autism spectrum disorder. Autism: The International Journal of Research and Practice, 24(5), 1164–1176. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1177/1362361319894827

  • Solomon, C. (2020). Autism and employment: Implications for employers and adults with ASD. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 50, 4209–4217. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-020-04537-w

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Spooner, F., McKissick, B. R., & Reyes, E. (2020). Life skills and community-based instruction. In Handbook of adolescent transition education for youth with disabilities (pp. 165–179). Routledge.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Steinbrenner, J. R., Hume, K., Odom, S. L., Morin, K. L., Nowell, S. W., Tomaszewski, B., Szendrey, S., McIntyre, N. S., Yücesoy-Özkan, S., & Savage, M. N. (2020). Evidence-based practices for children, youth, and young adults with Autism. The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Frank Porter Graham Child Development Institute, National Clearinghouse on Autism Evidence and Practice Review Team. Accessed online at: https://ncaep.fpg.unc.edu/sites/ncaep.fpg.unc.edu/files/imce/documents/EBP%20Report%202020.pdf

  • Stewart, D., Law, M., Young, N. L., Forhan, M., Healy, H., Burke-Gaffney, J., & Freeman, M. (2014). Complexities during transitions to adulthood for youth with disabilities: Person–environment interactions. Disability and Rehabilitation, 36, 1998–2004. https://doi.org/10.3109/09638288.2014.885994

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Taber, T. A., Alberto, P. A., Seltzer, A., & Hughes, M. (2003). Obtaining assistance when lost in the community using cell phones. Research and Practice for Persons with Severe Disabilities, 28, 105–116.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Taylor, J. L., & Seltzer, M. M. (2010). Employment and post-secondary educational activities for young adults with autism spectrum disorders during the transition to adulthood. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 41, 566–574.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • VanDerwall, R., & Poling, A. (2021). Six Useful Websites for Practitioners Working in Schools. Behavior Analysis in Practice, 14, 264–271. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40617-020-00505-z

  • Walker, A. R., Uphold, N. M., Richter, S., & Test, D. W. (2010). Review of the literature on community-based instruction across grade levels. Education and Training in Autism and Developmental Disabilities, 45, 242–267. http://www.jstor.org/stable/23879810

  • Walsh, C., Jones, B. & Schonwald, A. (2017). Health Care Transition Planning Among Adolescents with Autism Spectrum Disorder. Journal of Autism Developmental Disorders 47, 980–991. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-016-3020-1

  • Warr, P. B., & Clapperton, G. (2010). The joy of work? Jobs, happiness, and you. Routledge, Taylor & Franics Group.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Wertalik, J. L., Kubina, R. M. (2017). Interventions to Improve Personal Care Skills for Individuals with Autism: A Review of the Literature. Review Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 4, 50–60 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40489-016-0097-6

  • Wise, E. A., Smith, M. D., & Rabins, P. V. (2020). Correlates of daily functioning in older adults with autism spectrum disorder. Aging & Mental Health, 24, 1754–1762. https://doi.org/10.1080/13607863.2019.1647138

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wisner-Carlson, R., Uram, S., & Fils, T. (2020). The transition to adulthood for young people with autism spectrum disorder. Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics, 28, 345–358. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chc.2019.12.002

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zane, T. (2005). Fads in special education: An overview. In R. M. Foxx & J. M. Mulick (Eds.), Controversial therapies for developmental disabilities (pp. 197–214). Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. The EPIC Programs, Paramus, NJ, USA

    Peter F. Gerhardt

  2. School of Education, Endicott College, Beverly, MA, USA

    Peter F. Gerhardt

  3. Endicott College, Beverly, MA, USA

    Shanna N. Bahry

Authors
  1. Peter F. Gerhardt
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Shanna N. Bahry
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Peter F. Gerhardt .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Autism Partnership Foundation, Seal Beach, CA, USA

    Justin B. Leaf

  2. Autism Partnership Foundation, Seal Beach, CA, USA

    Joseph H. Cihon

  3. Autism Partnership Foundation, Seal Beach, CA, USA

    Julia L. Ferguson

  4. The EPIC Programs, Paramus, NJ, USA

    Peter F. Gerhardt

Ethics declarations

No funding was received for this manuscript. There were no human participants in this manuscript and therefore we did not need to receive informed consent was obtained from the parents of all individual participants included in the study. We were in accordance with ethical standards of the institutional research committee and with 1964 Helsinki decoration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2022 The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG

About this chapter

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this chapter

Gerhardt, P.F., Bahry, S.N. (2022). Transition to Adulthood for Adolescents and Young Adults with Autism: Can We Improve Outcomes?. In: Leaf, J.B., Cihon, J.H., Ferguson, J.L., Gerhardt, P.F. (eds) Handbook of Quality of Life for Individuals with Autism Spectrum Disorder. Autism and Child Psychopathology Series. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-98507-3_7

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation