Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Hypertension, Preeclampsia, and Eclampsia

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Principles and Practice of Maternal Critical Care

  • 906 Accesses

Abstract

Hypertensive disorders of pregnancy are responsible for a large burden of maternal and fetal morbidity and mortality worldwide. The wide-ranging manifestations of these diseases include several phenomena that can quickly become an emergency. The most significant of these disorders, preeclampsia with severe features, can adversely impact every organ in the body; even when these diseases present with subtle findings, there is potential for significant and long-lasting impact on the health of the mother and baby. This chapter will summarize the risks, clinical features, diagnosis, and management of this significant family of obstetric conditions.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 129.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 169.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 249.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  1. Kuklina EV, Ayala C, Callaghan WM. Hypertensive disorders and severe obstetric morbidity in the United States. Obstet Gynecol. 2009;113(6):1299–306. https://doi.org/10.1097/AOG.0b013e3181a45b25.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  2. Callaghan WM, Mackay AP, Berg CJ. Identification of severe maternal morbidity during delivery hospitalizations, United States, 1991–2003. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2008;199(2):133. e131-138. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajog.2007.12.020.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  3. Caughey AB, Stotland NE, Washington AE, Escobar GJ. Maternal ethnicity, paternal ethnicity, and parental ethnic discordance: predictors of preeclampsia. Obstet Gynecol. 2005;106(1):156–61. https://doi.org/10.1097/01.AOG.0000164478.91731.06.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  4. Wallis AB, Saftlas AF, Hsia J, Atrash HK. Secular trends in the rates of preeclampsia, eclampsia, and gestational hypertension, United States, 1987–2004. Am J Hypertens. 2008;21(5):521–6. https://doi.org/10.1038/ajh.2008.20.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  5. Osungbade KO, Ige OK. Public health perspectives of preeclampsia in developing countries: implication for health system strengthening. J Pregnancy. 2011;2011:481095. https://doi.org/10.1155/2011/481095.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  6. WHO. Make every mother and child count, in The world health report 2005. 2005. Last accessed 13-Sep-2018 at http://www.who.int/whr/2005/whr2005_en.pdf

  7. Say L, Chou D, Gemmill A, Tunçalp Ö, Moller A-B, Daniels J, Gülmezoglu AM, Temmerman M, Alkema L. Global causes of maternal death: a WHO systematic analysis. Lancet Glob Health. 2014;2(6):e323–33. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2214-109X(14)70227-X.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  8. MacKay AP, Berg CJ, Atrash HK. Pregnancy-related mortality from preeclampsia and eclampsia. Obstet Gynecol. 2001;97(4):533–8.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  9. Main EK, McCain CL, Morton CH, Holtby S, Lawton ES. Pregnancy-related mortality in California: causes, characteristics, and improvement opportunities. Obstet Gynecol. 2015;125(4):938–47. https://doi.org/10.1097/AOG.0000000000000746.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  10. Saucedo M, Deneux-Tharaux C, Bouvier-Colle MH, French National Experts Committee on Maternal M. Ten years of confidential inquiries into maternal deaths in France, 1998–2007. Obstet Gynecol. 2013;122(4):752–60. https://doi.org/10.1097/AOG.0b013e31829fc38c.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  11. Gynecologists ACoOa, The Society for Maternal-Fetal M, Kilpatrick SK, Ecker JL. Severe maternal morbidity: screening and review. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2016;215(3):B17–22. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajog.2016.07.050.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  12. Lisonkova S, Sabr Y, Mayer C, Young C, Skoll A, Joseph KS. Maternal morbidity associated with early-onset and late-onset preeclampsia. Obstet Gynecol. 2014;124(4):771–81. https://doi.org/10.1097/AOG.0000000000000472.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  13. Umo-Etuk J, Lumley J, Holdcroft A. Critically ill parturient women and admission to intensive care: a 5-year review. Int J Obstet Anesth. 1996;5(2):79–84.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  14. Chantry AA, Deneux-Tharaux C, Bonnet MP, Bouvier-Colle MH. Pregnancy-related ICU admissions in France: trends in rate and severity, 2006–2009. Crit Care Med. 2015;43(1):78–86. https://doi.org/10.1097/CCM.0000000000000601.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  15. Wanderer JP, Leffert LR, Mhyre JM, Kuklina EV, Callaghan WM, Bateman BT. Epidemiology of obstetric-related ICU admissions in Maryland: 1999-2008*. Crit Care Med. 2013;41(8):1844–52. https://doi.org/10.1097/CCM.0b013e31828a3e24.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  16. Theilen LH, Fraser A, Hollingshaus MS, Schliep KC, Varner MW, Smith KR, Esplin MS. All-cause and cause-specific mortality after hypertensive disease of pregnancy. Obstet Gynecol. 2016;128(2):238–44. https://doi.org/10.1097/AOG.0000000000001534.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  17. Kessous R, Shoham-Vardi I, Pariente G, Sergienko R, Sheiner E. Long-term maternal atherosclerotic morbidity in women with pre-eclampsia. Heart. 2015;101(6):442–6. https://doi.org/10.1136/heartjnl-2014-306571.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  18. Bellamy L, Casas JP, Hingorani AD, Williams DJ. Pre-eclampsia and risk of cardiovascular disease and cancer in later life: systematic review and meta-analysis. BMJ. 2007;335(7627):974. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.39335.385301.BE.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  19. Poorthuis MH, Algra AM, Algra A, Kappelle LJ, Klijn CJ. Female- and male-specific risk factors for stroke: a systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA Neurol. 2017;74(1):75–81. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamaneurol.2016.3482.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  20. American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists, Task Force on Hypertension in Pregnancy. Hypertension in pregnancy. Report of the American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists’ task force on hypertension in pregnancy. Obstet Gynecol. 2013;122(5):1122–31. https://doi.org/10.1097/01.AOG.0000437382.03963.88.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  21. Duley L, Henderson-Smart DJ, Meher S, King JF. Antiplatelet agents for preventing pre-eclampsia and its complications. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2007;2:CD004659. https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD004659.pub2.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  22. Soleymanlou N, Jurisica I, Nevo O, Ietta F, Zhang X, Zamudio S, Post M, Caniggia I. Molecular evidence of placental hypoxia in preeclampsia. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2005;90(7):4299–308. https://doi.org/10.1210/jc.2005-0078.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  23. Sharma A, Satyam A, Sharma JB. Leptin, IL-10 and inflammatory markers (TNF-alpha, IL-6 and IL-8) in pre-eclamptic, normotensive pregnant and healthy non-pregnant women. Am J Reprod Immunol. 2007;58(1):21–30. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0897.2007.00486.x.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  24. Many A, Hubel CA, Fisher SJ, Roberts JM, Zhou Y. Invasive cytotrophoblasts manifest evidence of oxidative stress in preeclampsia. Am J Pathol. 2000;156(1):321–31. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0002-9440(10)64733-5.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  25. Brosens IA, Robertson WB, Dixon HG. The role of the spiral arteries in the pathogenesis of preeclampsia. Obstet Gynecol Annu. 1972;1:177–91.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  26. Meekins JW, Pijnenborg R, Hanssens M, McFadyen IR, van Asshe A. A study of placental bed spiral arteries and trophoblast invasion in normal and severe pre-eclamptic pregnancies. Br J Obstet Gynaecol. 1994;101(8):669–74.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  27. Esser S, Wolburg K, Wolburg H, Breier G, Kurzchalia T, Risau W. Vascular endothelial growth factor induces endothelial fenestrations in vitro. J Cell Biol. 1998;140(4):947–59.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  28. Nagamatsu T, Fujii T, Kusumi M, Zou L, Yamashita T, Osuga Y, Momoeda M, Kozuma S, Taketani Y. Cytotrophoblasts up-regulate soluble fms-like tyrosine kinase-1 expression under reduced oxygen: an implication for the placental vascular development and the pathophysiology of preeclampsia. Endocrinology. 2004;145(11):4838–45. https://doi.org/10.1210/en.2004-0533.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  29. Gu Y, Lewis DF, Wang Y. Placental productions and expressions of soluble endoglin, soluble fms-like tyrosine kinase receptor-1, and placental growth factor in normal and preeclamptic pregnancies. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2008;93(1):260–6. https://doi.org/10.1210/jc.2007-1550.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  30. Cotton DB, Gonik B, Dorman K, Harrist R. Cardiovascular alterations in severe pregnancy-induced hypertension: relationship of central venous pressure to pulmonary capillary wedge pressure. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1985;151(6):762–4.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  31. Shahul S, Rhee J, Hacker MR, Gulati G, Mitchell JD, Hess P, Mahmood F, Arany Z, Rana S, Talmor D. Subclinical left ventricular dysfunction in preeclamptic women with preserved left ventricular ejection fraction: a 2D speckle-tracking imaging study. Circ Cardiovasc Imaging. 2012;5(6):734–9. https://doi.org/10.1161/CIRCIMAGING.112.973818.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  32. Lees MM. Central circulatory responses in normotensive and hypertensive pregnancy. Postgrad Med J. 1979;55(643):311–4.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  33. Visser W, Wallenburg HC. Central hemodynamic observations in untreated preeclamptic patients. Hypertension. 1991;17(6 Pt 2):1072–7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  34. Dennis AT. Transthoracic echocardiography in women with preeclampsia. Curr Opin Anaesthesiol. 2015;28(3):254–60. https://doi.org/10.1097/ACO.0000000000000182.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  35. Patten IS, Rana S, Shahul S, Rowe GC, Jang C, Liu L, Hacker MR, Rhee JS, Mitchell J, Mahmood F, Hess P, Farrell C, Koulisis N, Khankin EV, Burke SD, Tudorache I, Bauersachs J, del Monte F, Hilfiker-Kleiner D, Karumanchi SA, Arany Z. Cardiac angiogenic imbalance leads to peripartum cardiomyopathy. Nature. 2012;485(7398):333–8. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature11040.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  36. Brun C, Zieleskiewicz L, Textoris J, Muller L, Bellefleur JP, Antonini F, Tourret M, Ortega D, Vellin A, Lefrant JY, Boubli L, Bretelle F, Martin C, Leone M. Prediction of fluid responsiveness in severe preeclamptic patients with oliguria. Intensive Care Med. 2013;39(4):593–600. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00134-012-2770-2.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  37. Seal SL, Ghosh D, Kamilya G, Mukherji J, Hazra A, Garain P. Does route of delivery affect maternal and perinatal outcome in women with eclampsia? A randomized controlled pilot study. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2012;206(6):484.e1-7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajog.2012.04.009.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  38. Izci B, Riha RL, Martin SE, Vennelle M, Liston WA, Dundas KC, Calder AA, Douglas NJ. The upper airway in pregnancy and pre-eclampsia. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2003;167(2):137–40. https://doi.org/10.1164/rccm.200206-590OC.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  39. Ahuja P, Jain D, Bhardwaj N, Jain K, Gainder S, Kang M. Airway changes following labor and delivery in preeclamptic parturients: a prospective case control study. Int J Obstet Anesth. 2018;33:17–22. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijoa.2017.10.005.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  40. Boutonnet M, Faitot V, Katz A, Salomon L, Keita H. Mallampati class changes during pregnancy, labour, and after delivery: can these be predicted? Br J Anaesth. 2010;104(1):67–70. https://doi.org/10.1093/bja/aep356.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  41. da Silva EG, de Godoy I, de Oliveira Antunes LC, da Silva EG, Peracoli JC. Respiratory parameters and exercise functional capacity in preeclampsia. Hypertens Pregnancy. 2010;29(3):301–9. https://doi.org/10.3109/10641950902779271.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  42. Templeton AA, Kelman GR. Arterial blood gases in pre-eclampsia. Br J Obstet Gynaecol. 1977;84(4):290–3.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  43. Gandhi S, Sun D, Park AL, Hladunewich M, Silversides CK, Ray JG. The pulmonary edema preeclampsia evaluation (PEPE) study. J Obstet Gynaecol Can. 2014;36(12):1065–70. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1701-2163(15)30383-2.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  44. Easterling TR, Benedetti TJ. Preeclampsia: a hyperdynamic disease model. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1989;160(6):1447–53.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  45. Dennis AT, Solnordal CB. Acute pulmonary oedema in pregnant women. Anaesthesia. 2012;67(6):646–59. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2044.2012.07055.x.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  46. Hecht JL, Ordi J, Carrilho C, Ismail MR, Zsengeller ZK, Karumanchi SA, Rosen S. The pathology of eclampsia: an autopsy series. Hypertens Pregnancy. 2017;36(3):259–68. https://doi.org/10.1080/10641955.2017.1329430.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  47. Manas KJ, Welsh JD, Rankin RA, Miller DD. Hepatic hemorrhage without rupture in preeclampsia. N Engl J Med. 1985;312(7):424–6. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJM198502143120707.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  48. Barton JR, Sibai BM. Hepatic imaging in HELLP syndrome (hemolysis, elevated liver enzymes, and low platelet count). Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1996;174(6):1820–5. discussion 1825-1827

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  49. Wicke C, Pereira PL, Neeser E, Flesch I, Rodegerdts EA, Becker HD. Subcapsular liver hematoma in HELLP syndrome: evaluation of diagnostic and therapeutic options—a unicenter study. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2004;190(1):106–12. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajog.2003.08.029.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  50. Terasaki KK, Quinn MF, Lundell CJ, Finck EJ, Pentecost MJ. Spontaneous hepatic hemorrhage in preeclampsia: treatment with hepatic arterial embolization. Radiology. 1990;174(3 Pt 2):1039–41. https://doi.org/10.1148/radiology.174.3.174-3-1039.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  51. Yang SB, Goo DE, Chang YW, Kim YJ, Hwang IC, Han HS, Yoon JH, Lee TI. Spontaneous hepatic rupture associated with preeclampsia: treatment with hepatic artery embolization. J Korean Soc Radiol. 2010;63(1):29–32. https://doi.org/10.3348/jksr.2010.63.1.29.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  52. Sharma SK, Philip J, Whitten CW, Padakandla UB, Landers DF. Assessment of changes in coagulation in parturients with preeclampsia using thromboelastography. Anesthesiology. 1999;90(2):385–90.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  53. Wong CA, Liu S, Glassenberg R. Comparison of thrombelastography with common coagulation tests in preeclamptic and healthy parturients. Reg Anesth. 1995;20(6):521–7.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  54. Samuels P, Main EK, Tomaski A, Mennuti MT, Gabbe SG, Cines DB. Abnormalities in platelet antiglobulin tests in preeclamptic mothers and their neonates. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1987;157(1):109–13.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  55. Zhang S, Dong J, Liu B. Evaluation and its clinical significance of anti-platelet granule membrane protein-140 autoantibodies and anticalmodulin antibody in patients with severe pregnancy-induced hypertension. Zhonghua Fu Chan Ke Za Zhi. 1995;30(11):665–7.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  56. Nguyen MT, Maynard SE, Kimmel PL. Misapplications of commonly used kidney equations: renal physiology in practice. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol. 2009;4(3):528–34. https://doi.org/10.2215/CJN.05731108.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  57. Hildebrand AM, Liu K, Shariff SZ, Ray JG, Sontrop JM, Clark WF, Hladunewich MA, Garg AX. Characteristics and outcomes of AKI treated with dialysis during pregnancy and the postpartum period. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2015;26(12):3085–91. https://doi.org/10.1681/ASN.2014100954.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  58. Prakash J, Kumar H, Sinha DK, Kedalaya PG, Pandey LK, Srivastava PK, Raja R, Usha. Acute renal failure in pregnancy in a developing country: twenty years of experience. Ren Fail. 2006;28(4):309–13.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  59. Basso O, Rasmussen S, Weinberg CR, Wilcox AJ, Irgens LM, Skjaerven R. Trends in fetal and infant survival following preeclampsia. JAMA. 2006;296(11):1357–62. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.296.11.1357.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  60. Klungsoyr K, Morken NH, Irgens L, Vollset SE, Skjaerven R. Secular trends in the epidemiology of pre-eclampsia throughout 40 years in Norway: prevalence, risk factors and perinatal survival. Paediatr Perinat Epidemiol. 2012;26(3):190–8. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-3016.2012.01260.x.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  61. Egbor M, Ansari T, Morris N, Green CJ, Sibbons PD. Morphometric placental villous and vascular abnormalities in early- and late-onset pre-eclampsia with and without fetal growth restriction. BJOG. 2006;113(5):580–9. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-0528.2006.00882.x.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  62. Mendola P, Mumford SL, Mannisto TI, Holston A, Reddy UM, Laughon SK. Controlled direct effects of preeclampsia on neonatal health after accounting for mediation by preterm birth. Epidemiology. 2015;26(1):17–26. https://doi.org/10.1097/EDE.0000000000000213.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  63. Ananth CV, Basso O. Impact of pregnancy-induced hypertension on stillbirth and neonatal mortality. Epidemiology. 2010;21(1):118–23. https://doi.org/10.1097/EDE.0b013e3181c297af.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  64. Ananth CV, Lavery JA, Vintzileos AM, Skupski DW, Varner M, Saade G, Biggio J, Williams MA, Wapner RJ, Wright JD. Severe placental abruption: clinical definition and associations with maternal complications. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2016;214(2):272.e1–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajog.2015.09.069.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  65. Druzin ML, Shields LE, Peterson NL, Cape V. Preeclampsia toolkit: improving health care response to preeclampsia. California Maternal Quality Care Collaborative. 2013. Last accessed 16-Sep-2018 at https://pqcnc-documents.s3.amazonaws.com/cmop/cmopresources/CMQCC_Preeclampsia_Toolkit_1.17.14.pdf

  66. Altman D, Carroli G, Duley L, Farrell B, Moodley J, Neilson J, Smith D, Magpie Trial Collaboration G. Do women with pre-eclampsia, and their babies, benefit from magnesium sulphate? The Magpie Trial: a randomised placebo-controlled trial. Lancet. 2002;359(9321):1877–90.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  67. Which anticonvulsant for women with eclampsia? Evidence from the Collaborative Eclampsia Trial. Lancet. 1995;345(8963):1455–63.

    Google Scholar 

  68. Natarajan P, Shennan AH, Penny J, Halligan AW, de Swiet M, Anthony J. Comparison of auscultatory and oscillometric automated blood pressure monitors in the setting of preeclampsia. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1999;181(5 Pt 1):1203–10.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  69. von Dadelszen P, Magee LA. Antihypertensive medications in management of gestational hypertension-preeclampsia. Clin Obstet Gynecol. 2005;48(2):441–59.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  70. Larson CP Jr, Shuer LM, Cohen SE. Maternally administered esmolol decreases fetal as well as maternal heart rate. J Clin Anesth. 1990;2(6):427–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  71. Ducey JP, Knape KG. Maternal esmolol administration resulting in fetal distress and cesarean section in a term pregnancy. Anesthesiology. 1992;77(4):829–32.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  72. Zieleskiewicz L, Contargyris C, Brun C, Touret M, Vellin A, Antonini F, Muller L, Bretelle F, Martin C, Leone M. Lung ultrasound predicts interstitial syndrome and hemodynamic profile in parturients with severe preeclampsia. Anesthesiology. 2014;120(4):906–14. https://doi.org/10.1097/ALN.0000000000000102.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  73. Tuffnell DJ, Jankowicz D, Lindow SW, Lyons G, Mason GC, Russell IF, Walker JJ, Yorkshire Obstetric Critical Care G. Outcomes of severe pre-eclampsia/eclampsia in Yorkshire 1999/2003. BJOG. 2005;112(7):875–80. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-0528.2005.00565.x.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  74. Gilbert WM, Towner DR, Field NT, Anthony J. The safety and utility of pulmonary artery catheterization in severe preeclampsia and eclampsia. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2000;182(6):1397–403. https://doi.org/10.1067/mob.2000.106179.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  75. Sibai BM. Diagnosis and management of gestational hypertension and preeclampsia. Obstet Gynecol. 2003;102(1):181–92.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  76. Chames MC, Livingston JC, Ivester TS, Barton JR, Sibai BM. Late postpartum eclampsia: a preventable disease? Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2002;186(6):1174–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  77. Saftlas AF, Olson DR, Franks AL, Atrash HK, Pokras R. Epidemiology of preeclampsia and eclampsia in the United States, 1979–1986. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1990;163(2):460–5.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  78. Bianco A, Stone J, Lynch L, Lapinski R, Berkowitz G, Berkowitz RL. Pregnancy outcome at age 40 and older. Obstet Gynecol. 1996;87(6):917–22.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  79. Duckitt K, Harrington D. Risk factors for pre-eclampsia at antenatal booking: systematic review of controlled studies. BMJ. 2005;330(7491):565. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.38380.674340.E0.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  80. Villa PM, Marttinen P, Gillberg J, Lokki AI, Majander K, Orden MR, Taipale P, Pesonen A, Raikkonen K, Hamalainen E, Kajantie E, Laivuori H. Cluster analysis to estimate the risk of preeclampsia in the high-risk prediction and prevention of preeclampsia and intrauterine growth restriction (PREDO) study. PLoS One. 2017;12(3):e0174399. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0174399.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  81. O'Brien TE, Ray JG, Chan WS. Maternal body mass index and the risk of preeclampsia: a systematic overview. Epidemiology. 2003;14(3):368–74.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  82. Bateman BT, Shaw KM, Kuklina EV, Callaghan WM, Seely EW, Hernandez-Diaz S. Hypertension in women of reproductive age in the United States: NHANES 1999–2008. PLoS One. 2012;7(4):e36171. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0036171.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  83. Goodwin AA, Mercer BM. Does maternal race or ethnicity affect the expression of severe preeclampsia? Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2005;193(3 Pt 2):973–8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajog.2005.05.047.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  84. Tucker MJ, Berg CJ, Callaghan WM, Hsia J. The Black-White disparity in pregnancy-related mortality from 5 conditions: differences in prevalence and case-fatality rates. Am J Public Health. 2007;97(2):247–51. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2005.072975.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  85. Wolf M, Shah A, Jimenez-Kimble R, Sauk J, Ecker JL, Thadhani R. Differential risk of hypertensive disorders of pregnancy among Hispanic women. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2004;15(5):1330–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  86. Esplin MS, Fausett MB, Fraser A, Kerber R, Mineau G, Carrillo J, Varner MW. Paternal and maternal components of the predisposition to preeclampsia. N Engl J Med. 2001;344(12):867–72. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJM200103223441201.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  87. Nilsson E, Salonen Ros H, Cnattingius S, Lichtenstein P. The importance of genetic and environmental effects for pre-eclampsia and gestational hypertension: a family study. BJOG. 2004;111(3):200–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  88. Salonen Ros H, Lichtenstein P, Lipworth L, Cnattingius S. Genetic effects on the liability of developing pre-eclampsia and gestational hypertension. Am J Med Genet. 2000;91(4):256–60.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  89. Lie RT, Rasmussen S, Brunborg H, Gjessing HK, Lie-Nielsen E, Irgens LM. Fetal and maternal contributions to risk of pre-eclampsia: population based study. BMJ. 1998;316(7141):1343–7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  90. Cnattingius S, Reilly M, Pawitan Y, Lichtenstein P. Maternal and fetal genetic factors account for most of familial aggregation of preeclampsia: a population-based Swedish cohort study. Am J Med Genet A. 2004;130A(4):365–71. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajmg.a.30257.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  91. Bateman BT, Bansil P, Hernandez-Diaz S, Mhyre JM, Callaghan WM, Kuklina EV. Prevalence, trends, and outcomes of chronic hypertension: a nationwide sample of delivery admissions. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2012;206(2):134. e131-138. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajog.2011.10.878.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  92. Sibai BM. Chronic hypertension in pregnancy. Obstet Gynecol. 2002;100(2):369–77.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  93. Garner PR, D'Alton ME, Dudley DK, Huard P, Hardie M. Preeclampsia in diabetic pregnancies. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1990;163(2):505–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  94. Mazar RM, Srinivas SK, Sammel MD, Andrela CM, Elovitz MA. Metabolic score as a novel approach to assessing preeclampsia risk. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2007;197(4):411.e1-5. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajog.2007.07.014.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  95. Bartsch E, Medcalf KE, Park AL, Ray JG, High Risk of Pre-eclampsia Identification G. Clinical risk factors for pre-eclampsia determined in early pregnancy: systematic review and meta-analysis of large cohort studies. BMJ. 2016;353:i1753. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.i1753.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  96. Coonrod DV, Hickok DE, Zhu K, Easterling TR, Daling JR. Risk factors for preeclampsia in twin pregnancies: a population-based cohort study. Obstet Gynecol. 1995;85(5 Pt 1):645–50.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  97. Lee CJ, Hsieh TT, Chiu TH, Chen KC, Lo LM, Hung TH. Risk factors for pre-eclampsia in an Asian population. Int J Gynaecol Obstet. 2000;70(3):327–33.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  98. Eskenazi B, Fenster L, Sidney S. A multivariate analysis of risk factors for preeclampsia. JAMA. 1991;266(2):237–41.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  99. Hernandez-Diaz S, Toh S, Cnattingius S. Risk of pre-eclampsia in first and subsequent pregnancies: prospective cohort study. BMJ. 2009;338:b2255. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.b2255.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  100. Wikstrom AK, Stephansson O, Cnattingius S. Previous preeclampsia and risks of adverse outcomes in subsequent nonpreeclamptic pregnancies. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2011;204(2):148.e1-6. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajog.2010.09.003.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  101. Mostello D, Kallogjeri D, Tungsiripat R, Leet T. Recurrence of preeclampsia: effects of gestational age at delivery of the first pregnancy, body mass index, paternity, and interval between births. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2008;199(1):55.e1-7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajog.2007.11.058.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  102. Odegard RA, Vatten LJ, Nilsen ST, Salvesen KA, Austgulen R. Risk factors and clinical manifestations of pre-eclampsia. BJOG. 2000;107(11):1410–6.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  103. Santema JG, Koppelaar I, Wallenburg HC. Hypertensive disorders in twin pregnancy. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol. 1995;58(1):9–13.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  104. Skupski DW, Nelson S, Kowalik A, Polaneczky M, Smith-Levitin M, Hutson JM, Rosenwaks Z. Multiple gestations from in vitro fertilization: successful implantation alone is not associated with subsequent preeclampsia. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1996;175(4 Pt 1):1029–32.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  105. Koga K, Osuga Y, Tajima T, Hirota Y, Igarashi T, Fujii T, Yano T, Taketani Y. Elevated serum soluble fms-like tyrosine kinase 1 (sFlt1) level in women with hydatidiform mole. Fertil Steril. 2010;94(1):305–8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fertnstert.2009.02.015.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  106. Zhao L, Bracken MB, DeWan AT. Genome-wide association study of pre-eclampsia detects novel maternal single nucleotide polymorphisms and copy-number variants in subsets of the hyperglycemia and adverse pregnancy outcome (HAPO) study cohort. Ann Hum Genet. 2013;77(4):277–87. https://doi.org/10.1111/ahg.12021.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  107. Johnson MP, Brennecke SP, East CE, Goring HH, Kent JW Jr, Dyer TD, Said JM, Roten LT, Iversen AC, Abraham LJ, Heinonen S, Kajantie E, Kere J, Kivinen K, Pouta A, Laivuori H, Group FS, Austgulen R, Blangero J, Moses EK. Genome-wide association scan identifies a risk locus for preeclampsia on 2q14, near the inhibin, beta B gene. PLoS One. 2012;7(3):e33666. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0033666.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  108. Zhao L, Triche EW, Walsh KM, Bracken MB, Saftlas AF, Hoh J, Dewan AT. Genome-wide association study identifies a maternal copy-number deletion in PSG11 enriched among preeclampsia patients. BMC Pregnancy Childbirth. 2012;12:61. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2393-12-61.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  109. Chappell S, Morgan L. Searching for genetic clues to the causes of pre-eclampsia. Clin Sci (Lond). 2006;110(4):443–58. https://doi.org/10.1042/CS20050323.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  110. Jebbink J, Wolters A, Fernando F, Afink G, van der Post J, Ris-Stalpers C. Molecular genetics of preeclampsia and HELLP syndrome—a review. Biochim Biophys Acta. 2012;1822(12):1960–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbadis.2012.08.004.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  111. Moses EK, Fitzpatrick E, Freed KA, Dyer TD, Forrest S, Elliott K, Johnson MP, Blangero J, Brennecke SP. Objective prioritization of positional candidate genes at a quantitative trait locus for pre-eclampsia on 2q22. Mol Hum Reprod. 2006;12(8):505–12. https://doi.org/10.1093/molehr/gal056.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  112. van Dijk M, Mulders J, Poutsma A, Konst AA, Lachmeijer AM, Dekker GA, Blankenstein MA, Oudejans CB. Maternal segregation of the Dutch preeclampsia locus at 10q22 with a new member of the winged helix gene family. Nat Genet. 2005;37(5):514–9. https://doi.org/10.1038/ng1541.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  113. Yong HE, Melton PE, Johnson MP, Freed KA, Kalionis B, Murthi P, Brennecke SP, Keogh RJ, Moses EK. Genome-wide transcriptome directed pathway analysis of maternal pre-eclampsia susceptibility genes. PLoS One. 2015;10(5):e0128230. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0128230.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  114. Loset M, Mundal SB, Johnson MP, Fenstad MH, Freed KA, Lian IA, Eide IP, Bjorge L, Blangero J, Moses EK, Austgulen R. A transcriptional profile of the decidua in preeclampsia. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2011;204(1):84. e81-27. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajog.2010.08.043.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  115. Kleinrouweler CE, van Uitert M, Moerland PD, Ris-Stalpers C, van der Post JA, Afink GB. Differentially expressed genes in the pre-eclamptic placenta: a systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS One. 2013;8(7):e68991. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0068991.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Anesthesia, Critical Care and Pain Medicine, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA

    Erin J. Ciampa & Philip E. Hess

Authors
  1. Erin J. Ciampa
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Philip E. Hess
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Philip E. Hess .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Intensive Care Unit, Shaare Zedek Medical Center and Hebrew University Faculty of Medicine, Jerusalem, Israel

    Sharon Einav

  2. Division of Anesthesia, Critical Care and Pain, Tel Aviv Sourasky Medical Center, Tel Aviv, Israel

    Carolyn F. Weiniger

  3. Department of Anesthesiology, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, NY, USA

    Ruth Landau

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2020 Springer Nature Switzerland AG

About this chapter

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this chapter

Ciampa, E.J., Hess, P.E. (2020). Hypertension, Preeclampsia, and Eclampsia. In: Einav, S., Weiniger, C.F., Landau, R. (eds) Principles and Practice of Maternal Critical Care. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-43477-9_16

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-43477-9_16

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Cham

  • Print ISBN: 978-3-030-43476-2

  • Online ISBN: 978-3-030-43477-9

  • eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation