Abstract
Systemic infectious diseases can be associated in some cases with high mortality rates. Thus, there is a need for early detection and diagnosis in order to initiate an appropriate treatment regime as soon as possible. Nowadays, the diagnosis of infectious diseases is still dependent on the evaluation of blood and/or tissue samples. Although they are effective, these procedures are invasive and expensive, moreover, depending on different clinical conditions, these types of tests may not be accessible for many patients and health care providers. For all these reasons saliva-based diagnostics have been the primary focus of investigation for a variety of infectious pathogens for several years. The aim of this chapter is to review the main methods that have been developed and evaluated in saliva for the diagnostic and monitoring of systemic infectious diseases of humans and domestic animals.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
References
Abd-Eldaim MM et al (2009) Development and validation of a TaqMan real-time reverse transcription-PCR for rapid detection of feline calicivirus. Arch Virol 154(4):555–560. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00705-009-0337-5
Abernathy E et al (2009) Confirmation of rubella within 4 days of rash onset: comparison of rubella virus RNA detection in oral fluid with immunoglobulin M detection in serum or oral fluid. J Clin Microbiol 47(1):182–188. https://doi.org/10.1128/JCM.01231-08
Ahmed M et al (2011) Testing hepatitis A virus antibody in oral fluid among the prospective vaccinees foster the need of new oral HAV rapid test. Indian J Med Microbiol Medknow Publ Media Pvt Ltd 29(1):72. https://doi.org/10.4103/0255-0857.76532
Aiyar J et al (1990) Rotavirus-specific antibody response in saliva of infants with rotavirus diarrhea. J Infect Dis 162(6):1383–1384. https://doi.org/10.1093/infdis/162.6.1383
Alexandersen S et al (2003) The pathogenesis and diagnosis of foot-and-mouth disease. J Comp Pathol 129(1):1–36. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0021-9975(03)00041-0
Amado LA et al (2006) Detection of hepatitis A, B, and C virus-specific antibodies using oral fluid for epidemiological studies. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz Fundação Oswaldo Cruz 101(2):149–155. https://doi.org/10.1590/S0074-02762006000200006
Anand PS, Kamath KP, Anil S (2014) Role of dental plaque, saliva and periodontal disease in Helicobacter pylori infection. World J Gastroenterol Baishideng Publ Group Inc 20(19):5639–5653. https://doi.org/10.3748/wjg.v20.i19.5639
Archetti IL et al (1995) Detection of foot-and-mouth disease virus-infected cattle by assessment of antibody response in oropharyngeal fluids. J Clin Microbiol 33(1):79–84
Aschar M et al (2016) Value of the oral swab for the molecular diagnosis of dogs in different stages of infection with Leishmania infantum. Vet Parasitol 225:108–113. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vetpar.2016.06.005
Balmaseda A et al (2003) Diagnosis of dengue virus infection by detection of specific immunoglobulin M (IgM) and IgA antibodies in serum and saliva. Clin Diagn Lab Immunol 10(2):317–322. https://doi.org/10.1128/cdli.10.2.317-322.2003
Balmaseda A et al (2008) Evaluation of immunological markers in serum, filter-paper blood spots, and saliva for dengue diagnosis and epidemiological studies. J Clin Virol 43(3):287–291. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcv.2008.07.016
Baneth G, Aroch I (2008) Canine leishmaniasis: a diagnostic and clinical challenge. Vet J 175(1):14–15. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tvjl.2006.11.011
Bausch DG et al (2007) Assessment of the risk of Ebola virus transmission from bodily fluids and fomites. J Infect Dis Narnia 196(s2):S142–S147. https://doi.org/10.1086/520545
Bellini WJ, Rota JS, Rota PA (1994) Virology of measles virus. J Infect Dis Narnia 170(Suppl 1):S15–S23. https://doi.org/10.1093/infdis/170.Supplement_1.S15
Bender JS et al (2009) Comparison of conventional direct and enrichment culture methods for Erysipelothrix spp. from experimentally and naturally infected swine. J Vet Diagn Investig 21(6):863–868. https://doi.org/10.1177/104063870902100617
Ben Salah A et al (2003) Validation of a modified commercial assay for the detection of rubella-specific IgG in oral fluid for use in population studies. J Virol Methods 114(2):151–158. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14625050. Accessed 19 Aug 2019
Bestwick RK, Fitchen JH (1997) Virucidal activity of an oral fluid human immunodeficiency virus-1 antibody preservative. Am J Med Elsevier 102(4):26–29. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0002-9343(97)00035-1
Biernacka K et al (2016) Detection of porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV) and influenza a virus (IAV) in oral fluid of pigs. Res Vet Sci 109:74–80. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rvsc.2016.09.014
Bingham AM et al (2016) Comparison of test results for Zika virus RNA in urine, serum, and saliva specimens from persons with travel-associated Zika virus disease – Florida, 2016. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 65(18):475–478. https://doi.org/10.15585/mmwr.mm6518e2
Blome S et al (2017) Classical swine fever – an updated review. Viruses 9(4):1–24. https://doi.org/10.3390/v9040086
Broadhurst MJ, Brooks TJG, Pollock NR (2016) Diagnosis of Ebola virus disease: past, present, and future. Clin Microbiol Rev Am Soc Microbiol J 29(4):773–793. https://doi.org/10.1128/CMR.00003-16
Brown DWG et al (1994) Salivary diagnosis of measles: a study of notified cases in the United Kingdom, 1991-3. BMJ 308(6935):1015–1017. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.308.6935.1015
Cantos-Barreda A et al (2017) Quantification of anti-Leishmania antibodies in saliva of dogs. Vet Parasitol 242:54–58. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vetpar.2017.05.017
Cantos-Barreda A et al (2018) Changes in the concentration of anti-Leishmania antibodies in saliva of dogs with clinical leishmaniosis after short-term treatment. Vet Parasitol 254:135–141. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vetpar.2018.03.014
Cavalcante LTF et al (2018) Clinical and molecular features of feline foamy virus and feline leukemia virus co-infection in. Viruses 10:1–22. https://doi.org/10.3390/v10120702
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) (2008) Recommendations from an ad hoc Meeting of the WHO Measles and Rubella Laboratory Network (LabNet) on use of alternative diagnostic samples for measles and rubella surveillance. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 57(24):657–660. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18566565. Accessed 19 Aug 2019
Cha YJ et al (2013) Performance evaluation of the oraquick hepatitis C virus rapid antibody test. Ann Lab Med 33(3):184. https://doi.org/10.3343/alm.2013.33.3.184
Chakravarti A, Matlani M, Jain M (2007) Immunodiagnosis of dengue virus infection using saliva. Curr Microbiol 55(6):461–464. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00284-007-9040-5
Chang-Fung-Martel J et al (2013) A door-to-door prevalence study of feline immunodeficiency virus in an Australian suburb. J Feline Med Surg 15(12):1070–1078. https://doi.org/10.1177/1098612X13491959
Cheong Y et al (2017) Survey of porcine respiratory disease complex-associated pathogens among commercial pig farms in Korea via oral fluid method. J Vet Sci 18(3):283–289. https://doi.org/10.4142/jvs.2017.18.3.283
Christopher Maple PA, Jones CS (2002) Time-resolved fluorometric immunoassay for rubella antibody – a useful method for serosurveillance studies. Vaccine 20(9–10):1378–1382. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0264-410x(01)00474-1
Chung T-H et al (2014) Determination of the prevalence of Helicobacter heilmannii-like organisms type 2 (HHLO-2) infection in humans and dogs using non-invasive genus/species-specific PCR in Korea. J Vet Med Sci 76(1):73–79. https://doi.org/10.1292/jvms.13-0223
Conraths FJ, Peters M, Beer M (2013) Schmallenberg virus, a novel orthobunyavirus infection in ruminants in Europe: potential global impact and preventive measures. N Z Vet J 61(2):63–67. https://doi.org/10.1080/00480169.2012.738403
Cordeiro ML, Turpin CS, McAdams SA (1993) A comparative study of saliva and orasure® oral fluid. Ann NY Acad Sci Wiley 694(1):330–331. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1749-6632.1993.tb18380.x
Cuzzubbo AJ et al (1998) Detection of specific antibodies in saliva during dengue infection. J Clin Microbiol 36(12):3737–3739. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9817913. Accessed 8 Aug 2019
Daly JM et al (2015) Comparison of Schmallenberg virus antibody levels detected in milk and serum from individual cows. BMC Vet Res 11(1):1–4. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12917-015-0365-1
de Almeida Ferreira S et al (2012) Canine skin and conjunctival swab samples for the detection and quantification of Leishmania infantum DNA in an endemic urban area in Brazil. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 6(4):e1596. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pntd.0001596
de Almeida Ferreira et al (2013) Nasal, oral and ear swabs for canine visceral leishmaniasis diagnosis: new practical approaches for detection of Leishmania infantum DNA. PLoS NTDs 7(4):e2150. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pntd.0002150
Decorte I et al (2014) Detection of total and PRRSV-specific antibodies in oral fluids collected with different rope types from PRRSV-vaccinated and experimentally infected pigs. BMC Vet Res 10(1):134. https://doi.org/10.1186/1746-6148-10-134
Decorte I et al (2015) Detection and isolation of swine influenza a virus in spiked oral fluid and samples from individually housed, experimentally infected pigs: potential role of porcine oral fluid in active influenza a virus surveillance in swine. PLoS One 10(10):e0139586. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0139586
Dietze K et al (2017) Rope-based oral fluid sampling for early detection of classical swine fever in domestic pigs at group level. BMC Vet Res 13:5. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12917-016-0930-2
Druet I, Hennet P (2017) Relationship between feline calicivirus load, oral lesions, and outcome in feline chronic gingivostomatitis (caudal stomatitis): retrospective study in 104 cats. Front Vet Sci 4:209. https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2017.00209
Ekman E, Fredriksson M, Trowald-Wigh G (2013) Helicobacter spp. in the saliva, stomach, duodenum and faeces of colony dogs. Vet J 195(1):127–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tvjl.2012.05.001
Fablet C et al (2012) Infectious agents associated with respiratory diseases in 125 farrow-to-finish pig herds: a cross-sectional study. Vet Microbiol 157(1–2):152–163. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vetmic.2011.12.015
Fanales-Belasio E et al (2010) HIV virology and pathogenetic mechanisms of infection: a brief overview. Annali dell’Istituto superiore di sanita 46(1):5–14. https://doi.org/10.4415/ANN_10_01_02
Farnaud SJC et al (2010) Saliva: physiology and diagnostic potential in health and disease. Sci World J Hindawi 10:434–456. https://doi.org/10.1100/tsw.2010.38
Featherstone D, Brown D, Sanders R (2003) Development of the global measles laboratory network. J Infect Dis 187(s1):S264–S269. https://doi.org/10.1086/368054
Formenty P et al (2006) Detection of Ebola virus in oral fluid specimens during outbreaks of Ebola virus hemorrhagic fever in the Republic of Congo. Clin Infect Dis Narnia 42(11):1521–1526. https://doi.org/10.1086/503836
Fox JG et al (1995) Helicobacter pylori-induced gastritis in the domestic cat. Infect Immun 63(7):2674–2681
Francino O et al (2006) Advantages of real-time PCR assay for diagnosis and monitoring of canine leishmaniosis. Vet Parasitol 137(3–4):214–221. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vetpar.2006.01.011
Garrido Redondo M et al (1997) Value of salivary antibodies for determining seropositivity to measles, rubella, and mumps in children and adults. An Esp Pediatr 47(5):499–504. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9586291. Accessed 20 Aug 2019
Gerber PF et al (2014) Comparison of commercial enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays and fluorescent microbead immunoassays for detection of antibodies against porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus in boars. J Virol Methods 197:63–66. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jviromet.2013.12.001
Gerber PF et al (2017) Using oral fluids samples for indirect influenza a virus surveillance in farmed UK pigs. Vet Med Sci 3(1):3–12. https://doi.org/10.1002/vms3.51
Gill J et al (2002) Susceptibility of young offenders to measles and rubella: an antibody prevalence study using oral fluid samples. Commun Dis Public Health 5(4):314–317. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12564248. Accessed 20 Aug 2019
Giménez-Lirola LG et al (2013) Improving ante mortem diagnosis of Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae infection by use of oral fluids for bacterial, nucleic acid, and antibody detection. J Microbiol Methods 92(2):113–121. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mimet.2012.11.014
Gisbert JP (2015) Enfermedades relacionadas con la infección por Helicobacter pylori. Gastroenterol Hepatol 38:39–48. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0210-5705(15)30018-2
‘Global programme on AIDS. Recommendations for the selection and use of HIV antibody tests.’ (1992) Releve epidemiologique hebdomadaire 67(20):145–149. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1599842. Accessed 20 Aug 2019
González W et al (2017) Detection of Actinobacillus pleuropneumoniae ApxIV toxin antibody in serum and oral fluid specimens from pigs inoculated under experimental conditions. J Vet Res (Poland) 61(2):163–171. https://doi.org/10.1515/jvetres-2017-0021
Gramiccia M, Gradoni L (2005) The current status of zoonotic leishmaniases and approaches to disease control. Int J Parasitol 35:1169–1180. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijpara.2005.07.001
Guzman MG, Harris E (2015) Dengue. Lancet 385(9966):453–465. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(14)60572-9
Hansen MS et al (2010) An investigation of the pathology and pathogens associated with porcine respiratory disease complex in Denmark. J Comp Pathol 143(2–3):120–131. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcpa.2010.01.012
Hartmann K et al (2007) Quality of different in-clinic test systems for feline immunodeficiency virus and feline leukaemia virus infection. J Feline Med Surg 9(6):439–445. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfms.2007.04.003
Helps C et al (2002) Melting curve analysis of feline calicivirus isolates detected by real-time reverse transcription PCR. J Virol Methods 106(2):241–244. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0166-0934(02)00167-2
Hernández-GarcÃa J et al (2017) The use of oral fluids to monitor key pathogens in porcine respiratory disease complex. Porcine Health Manag 3(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40813-017-0055-4
Huang YL et al (2017) Competitive replication kinetics and pathogenicity in pigs co-infected with historical and newly invading classical swine fever viruses. Virus Res 228:39–45. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.virusres.2016.11.022
Hutse V et al (2010) Oral fluid for the serological and molecular diagnosis of measles. Int J Infect Dis Elsevier 14(11):e991–e997. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.IJID.2010.06.009
Jankowski M et al (2016) Detection of Helicobacter spp. in the saliva of dogs with gastritis. Pol J Vet Sci 19(1):133–140. https://doi.org/10.1515/pjvs-2016-0017
Jankowski M et al (2017) An evaluation of the usefulness of invasive and non-invasive methods used to diagnose Helicobacter spp. infections in dogs. Pol J Vet Sci 20(3):491–499. https://doi.org/10.1515/pjvs-2017-0059
Jiang C et al (1998) Identification of H. pylori in saliva by a nested PCR assay derived from a newly cloned DNA probe. Dig Dis Sci 43(6):1211–1218. https://doi.org/10.1023/a:1018847522200
Jin L, Vyse A, Brown DWG (2002) The role of RT-PCR assay of oral fluid for diagnosis and surveillance of measles, mumps and rubella. Bull World Health Organ World Health Organ 80(1):76–77. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11884979. Accessed 14 Aug 2019
Kamolvarin N et al (1993) Diagnosis of rabies by polymerase chain reaction with nested primers. J Infect Dis 167(1):207–210. https://doi.org/10.1093/infdis/167.1.207
Kasempimolporn S et al (2011) Evaluation of a rapid immunochromatographic test strip for detection of in dog saliva samples. J Vet Diagn Investig 23(6):1197–1201. https://doi.org/10.1177/1040638711425576
Kaufman E, Lamster IB (2002) The diagnostic applications of saliva – a review. Crit Rev Oral Biol Med 13(2):197–212. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12097361. Accessed 20 Aug 2019
Kittawornrat A et al (2013) Kinetics of the porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV) humoral immune response in swine serum and oral fluids collected from individual boars. BMC Vet Res 9(1):61. https://doi.org/10.1186/1746-6148-9-61
Kountouras J, Walt RP (1998) Diagnostic tests for Helicobacter pylori reply. Gut 42(6):899–901. https://doi.org/10.1136/gut.42.6.899c
Kremer JR, Muller CP (2005) Evaluation of commercial assay detecting specific immunoglobulin G in oral fluid for determining measles immunity in vaccinees. Clin Vaccine Immunol 12(5):668–670. https://doi.org/10.1128/CDLI.12.5.668-670.2005
Kuiek AM et al (2015) Comparison of serum and oral fluid antibody responses after vaccination with a modified live (MLV) porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PPRSV) vaccine in PRRS endemic farms.Trop. Anim Health Prod 47(7):1337–1342. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11250-015-0868-6
Kumar Nagarajappa A, Bhasin N (2015) Review article saliva as a detective biofluid. Available at: https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/4e3e/63ab1002729ced2a564bc19b091f3f253c6d.pdf?_ga=2.166594110.1868805039.1547122656-931044907.1521642616. Accessed 10 Jan 2019
Lambert N et al (2015) Rubella. Lancet 385(9984):2297–2307. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(14)60539-0
Langenhorst RJ et al (2012) Development of a fluorescent microsphere immunoassay for detection of antibodies against porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus using oral fluid samples as an alternative to serum-based assays. Clin Vaccine Immunol 19(2):180–189. https://doi.org/10.1128/CVI.05372-11
Lawrence HP (2002) Salivary markers of systemic disease: noninvasive diagnosis of disease and monitoring of general health. J Can Dent Assoc 68(3):170–174. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11911813. Accessed 7 Aug 2019
Lazarini PR et al (2006) Herpes simplex virus in the saliva of peripheral Bell’s palsy patients. Braz J Otorhinolaryngol 72(1):7–11. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16917546. Accessed 24 Sept 2019
Lazutka J et al (2015) Saliva as an alternative specimen for detection of Schmallenberg virus-specific antibodies in bovines. BMC Vet Res 11(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12917-015-0552-0
Loeb MB et al (1997) Evaluation of salivary antibodies to detect infection with Helicobacter pylori. Can J Gastroenterol 11(5):437–440. https://doi.org/10.1155/1997/294081
Lombardo G et al (2012) Veterinary parasitology detection of Leishmania infantum DNA by real-time PCR in canine oral and conjunctival swabs and comparison with other diagnostic techniques. Vet Parasitol 184(1):10–17. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vetpar.2011.08.010
Lung O et al (2018) Fully automated and integrated multiplex detection of high consequence livestock viral genomes on a microfluidic platform. Transbound Emerg Dis 66(1):144–155. https://doi.org/10.1111/tbed.12994
Luzza F, Pallone F (1997) Helisal saliva assay. Gut 41(5):725. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9414994. Accessed 3 Sept 2019
Mackiewicz V et al (2004) Detection of hepatitis A virus RNA in saliva. J Clin Microbiol Am Soc Microbiol (ASM) 42(9):4329–4331. https://doi.org/10.1128/JCM.42.9.4329-4331.2004
Madar R, Straka S and Baska T (2002) Detection of antibodies in saliva – an effective auxiliary method in surveillance of infectious diseases. Bratisl Lek Listy 103(1):38–41. Available at: http://bmj.fmed.uniba.sk/2002/10301-08.pdf. Accessed 13 Feb 2019
Maia C, Campino L (2008) Methods for diagnosis of canine leishmaniasis and immune response to infection. Vet Parasitol 158(4):274–287. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vetpar.2008.07.028
Malamud D (1997) Oral diagnostic testing for detecting human immunodeficiency virus-1 antibodies: a technology whose time has come. Am J Med 102(4):9–14. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0002-9343(97)00032-6
Malmquist WA, Hay D (1960) Hemadsorption and cytopathic effect produced by african swine fever virus in swine bone marrow and buffy coat cultures. Am J Vet Res 21:104–108
Maple PAC (2015) Application of oral fluid assays in support of mumps, rubella and varicella control programs. Vaccines Multidiscip Digit Publ Inst (MDPI) 3(4):988–1003. https://doi.org/10.3390/vaccines3040988
MartÃnez PM et al (1999) Human immunodeficiency virus antibody testing by enzyme-linked fluorescent and western blot assays using serum, gingival-crevicular transudate, and urine samples. J Clin Microbiol 37(4):1100–1106. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10074532. Accessed 7 Aug 2019
Matsuda S et al (1993) Characteristics of IgA antibodies against HIV-1 in sera and saliva from HIV-seropositive individuals in different clinical stages. Scand J Immunol Wiley 38(5):428–434. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-3083.1993.tb02584.x
Matteucci D et al (1993) Detection of feline immunodeficiency virus in saliva and plasma by cultivation and polymerase chain reaction. J Clin Microbiol 31(3):494–501
Meining A, Kroher G, Stolte M (1998) Animal reservoirs in the transmission of helicobacter heilmannii: results of a questionnaire-based study. Scand J Gastroenterol 33(8):795–798. https://doi.org/10.1080/00365529850171422
Miller C et al (2017) Pathogenesis of oral FIV infection. PLoS One 12(9):1–24. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0185138
Miró G et al (2008) Canine leishmaniosis – new concepts and insights on an expanding zoonosis: part two. Trends Parasitol 24(8):371–377. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pt.2008.05.003
Moreno J, Alvar J (2002) Canine leishmaniasis: epidemiological risk and the experimental model. Trends Parasitol 18(9):399–405. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1471-4922(02)02347-4
Mur L et al (2013) Potential use of oral fluid samples for serological diagnosis of African swine fever. Vet Microbiol 165(1–2):135–139. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vetmic.2012.12.034
Muskens J et al (2012) Diarrhea and loss of production on Dutch dairy farmas caused by the Schmallenberg virus. Tijdschr Diergeneeskd 137(2):112–115
Musso D, Gubler DJ (2016) Zika virus. Clin Microbiol Rev 29(3):487–524. https://doi.org/10.1128/CMR.00072-15
Musso D et al (2015) Detection of Zika virus in saliva. J Clin Virol Elsevier 68:53–55. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JCV.2015.04.021
Mustafa MS et al (2015) Discovery of fifth serotype of dengue virus (DENV-5): a new public health dilemma in dengue control. Med J Armed Forces India 71(1):67–70. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mjafi.2014.09.011
Niedrig M et al (2018) Find the right sample: a study on the versatility of saliva and urine samples for the diagnosis of emerging viruses. BMC Infect Dis BioMed Cent 18(1):707. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12879-018-3611-x
Nokes DJ et al (1998) A comparison of oral fluid and serum for the detection of rubella-specific antibodies in a community study in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Tropical Med Int Health 3(4):258–267. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9623926. Accessed 19 Aug 2019
Oba IT et al (2000) Detection of hepatitis a antibodies by ELISA using saliva as clinical samples. Rev Inst Med Trop Sao Paulo 42(4):197–200. https://doi.org/10.1590/S0036-46652000000400004
OIE Manual of diagnostic tests and vaccines for terrestrial animals (mammals, birds, and bees) (2004) World Organisation for Animals Health, p 111. Available at: https://www.oie.int/doc/ged/D6460.PDF
Olsen C et al (2013) Effect of collection material and sample processing on pig oral fluid testing results. Vet J 198(1):158–163. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tvjl.2013.06.014
Opriessnig T et al (2011) Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae : genetic characterization of Midwest US isolates and live commercial vaccines using pulsed-field gel electrophoresis. J Vet Diagn Investig 16(2):101–107. https://doi.org/10.1177/104063870401600202
Ouyang K et al (2013) Development and validation of an assay to detect porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus-specific neutralizing antibody titers in pig oral fluid samples. Clin Vaccine Immunol 20(8):1305–1313. https://doi.org/10.1128/CVI.00276-13
Panyasing Y et al (2018) Detection of classical swine fever virus (CSFV) E2 and Erns antibody (IgG, IgA) in oral fluid specimens from inoculated (ALD strain) or vaccinated (LOM strain) pigs. Vet Microbiol 224:70–77. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vetmic.2018.08.024
Parida S et al (2007) Reduction of foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) virus load in nasal excretions, saliva and exhaled air of vaccinated pigs following direct contact challenge. Vaccine 25(45):7806–7817. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vaccine.2007.08.058
Parry JV, Perry KR, Mortimer PP (1987) Sensitive assays for viral antibodies in saliva: an alternative to tests on serum. Lancet (Lond Engl) 2(8550):72–75. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0140-6736(87)92737-1
Pedersen NC et al (1989) Feline immunodeficiency virus infection. Vet Immunol Immunopathol 21(1):111–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/0165-2427(89)90134-7
Perry KR et al (1993) Detection of measles, mumps, and rubella antibodies in saliva using antibody capture radioimmunoassay. J Med Virol 40(3):235–240. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8355022. Accessed 14 Aug 2019
Petrini S et al (2017) Detection of classical swine fever virus infection by individual oral fluid of pigs following experimental inoculation. J Vet Diagn Investig 29(2):254–257. https://doi.org/10.1177/1040638716686393
Petrov A et al (2014) Comparative analyses of host responses upon infection with moderately virulent classical swine fever virus in domestic pigs and wild boar. Virol J 11(1):1–6. https://doi.org/10.1186/1743-422X-11-134
Pieters M, Daniels J, Rovira A (2017) Comparison of sample types and diagnostic methods for in vivo detection of mycoplasma hyopneumoniae during early stages of infection. Vet Microbiol 203:103–109. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vetmic.2017.02.014
Poloni TR et al (2010) Detection of dengue virus in saliva and urine by real time RT-PCR. Virol J BioMed Cent 7:22. https://doi.org/10.1186/1743-422X-7-22
Radford AD et al (2007) Review article Feline calicivirus. Vet Res 38:319–335. https://doi.org/10.1051/vetres
RamÃrez A et al (2012) Efficient surveillance of pig populations using oral fluids. Prev Vet Med 104(3–4):292–300. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.prevetmed.2011.11.008
Ramsay M, Brugha R, Brown D (1997) Surveillance of measles in England and Wales: implications of a national saliva testing programme Bull World Health Organ World Health Organ 75(6):515–521. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9509623. Accessed 19 Aug 2019
Ramsay ME et al (1998) Salivary diagnosis of rubella: a study of notified cases in the United Kingdom, 1991–4. Epidemiol Infect 120(3):315–319. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0950268898008838
Rattanavipapong W, Thavorncharoensap M, Youngkong S (2019) The impact of transmission dynamics of rabies control: systematic review. Vaccine 37 Suppl 1, A154–A165. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vaccine.2018.11.035
Ravi Banavar S, Vidya GS (2014) Diagnostic efficacy of saliva for dengue – a reality in near future? A piloting initiative. J Clin Diag Res JCDR Res Publ Pvt Ltd 8(3):229–232. https://doi.org/10.7860/JCDR/2014/7521.4169
Recordati C et al (2007) Detection of Helicobacter spp. DNA in the oral cavity of dogs. Vet Microbiol 119(2–4):346–351. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vetmic.2006.08.029
Saengseesom W et al (2007) Real-time PCR analysis of dog cerebrospinal fluid and saliva samples for ante-mortem diagnosis of rabies. Southeast Asian J Trop Med Public Health 38(1):53–57
Sánchez-VizcaÃno JM et al (2015) An update on the epidemiology and pathology of African swine fever. J Comp Pathol 152(1):9–21. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcpa.2014.09.003
Sand C et al (2010) Evaluation of a new in-clinic test system to detect feline immunodeficiency virus and feline leukemia virus infection. Vet Clin Pathol 39(2):210–214. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1939-165X.2009.00196.x
Sattler T, Wodak E, Schmoll F (2015) Evaluation of the specificity of a commercial ELISA for detection of antibodies against porcine respiratory and reproductive syndrome virus in individual oral fluid of pigs collected in two different ways. BMC Vet Res 11(1):70. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12917-015-0388-7
Scully C (1997) HIV topic update: salivary testing for antibodies. Oral Dis 3(4):212–215. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9643214. Accessed 5 Aug 2019
Scully C, Samaranayake LP (1992) Clinical virology in oral medicine and dentistry. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge
Shanbhag VL (2015) The need of an hour for saliva diagnostic research in detection of Ebola viral disease. Commun Acquir Infect Medknow Publ Media Pvt Ltd 2(1):27. https://doi.org/10.4103/2225-6482.153867
Solano-Gallego L et al (2009) Directions for the diagnosis, clinical staging, treatment and prevention of canine leishmaniosis. Vet Parasitol 165(1–2):1–18. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vetpar.2009.05.022
Solano-Gallego L et al (2011) LeishVet guidelines for the practical management of canine leishmaniosis. Parasit Vectors 4(1):86. https://doi.org/10.1186/1756-3305-4-86
Sørensen JT et al (2006) Animal production systems in the industrialised world. Rev Sci Tech 25(2):493–503
Strong JE et al (2006) Filoviruses and arenaviruses. In: Manual of molecular and clinical laboratory immunology, 7th edn. American Society of Microbiology, Washington, pp 774–790. https://doi.org/10.1128/9781555815905.ch87
Thieme T et al (1992) Clinical evaluation of oral fluid samples for diagnosis of viral hepatitis. J Clin Microbiol Am Soc Microbiol J 30(5):1076–1079. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1316364. Accessed 8 Aug 2019
Torres JR, Liprandi F, Goncalvez AP (2000) Acute parotitis due to dengue virus. Clin Infect Dis 31(5):e28–e29. https://doi.org/10.1086/317454
Vainio K et al (2008) Detection of measles- and mumps-specific IgG antibodies in paired serum and oral fluid samples from Norwegian conscripts. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 27(6):461–465. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10096-008-0460-3
Vaughn JB, Gerhardt P, Newell KW (1965) Excretion of street rabies virus in the saliva of dogs. JAMA 193(5):363. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.1965.03090050039010
Vauloup-Fellous C et al (2010) Phylogenetic analysis of rubella viruses involved in congenital rubella infections in France between 1995 and 2009. J Clin Microbiol 48(7):2530–2535. https://doi.org/10.1128/JCM.00181-10
Vázquez S et al (2007) Kinetics of antibodies in sera, saliva, and urine samples from adult patients with primary or secondary dengue 3 virus infections. Int J Infect Dis 11(3):256–262. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijid.2006.05.005
Vyse AJ et al (1997) Detection of IgG antibody to Epstein-Barr virus viral capsid antigen in saliva by antibody capture radioimmunoassay. J Virol Methods 63(1–2):93–101. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0166-0934(96)02118-0
Vyse AJ et al (1999) Detection of rubella virus-specific immunoglobulin G in saliva by an amplification-based enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay using monoclonal antibody to fluorescein isothiocyanate. J Clin Microbiol 37(2):391–395. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9889225. Accessed 19 Aug 2019
Wacharapluesadee S et al (2012) Detection of rabies viral RNA by TaqMan real-time RT-PCR using non-neural specimens from dogs infected with rabies virus. J Virol Methods 184(1–2):109–112. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jviromet.2012.05.013
Walker PJ et al (2019) ICTV virus taxonomy profile: Rhabdoviridae. J Gen Virol 99(4):447–448. https://doi.org/10.1099/jgv.0.001020
Warrener L, Samuel D (2006) Evaluation of a commercial assay for the detection of mumps specific IgM antibodies in oral fluid and serum specimens. J Clin Virol Elsevier 35(2):130–134. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JCV.2005.10.008
Wasik D, Mulchandani A, Yates MV (2018) Salivary detection of dengue virus NS1 protein with a label-free immunosensor for early dengue diagnosis. Sensors (Basel, Switz) Multidiscip Digit Publ Inst (MDPI) 18(8):E2641. https://doi.org/10.3390/S18082641
Westman ME et al (2016) Diagnosing feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV) infection in FIV-vaccinated and FIV-unvaccinated cats using saliva. Comp Immunol Microbiol Infect Dis 46:66–72. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cimid.2016.03.006
Westman ME et al (2017) Comparison of three feline leukaemia virus (FeLV) point-of-care antigen test kits using blood and saliva. Comp Immunol Microbiol Infect Dis 50:88–96. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cimid.2016.11.014
WHO Expert consultation on rabies (2005) Second report. WHO. World Health Organization technical report series No. 982, 27. Available at: https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/272364/9789241210218-eng.pdf
‘WHO | Laboratory testing for Zika virus infection’ (2016) WHO. World Health Organization. Available at: https://www.who.int/csr/resources/publications/zika/laboratory-testing/en/. Accessed 13 Aug 2019
Yamamoto JK et al (1988) Pathogenesis of experimentally induced feline immunodeficiency virus infection in cats. Am J Vet Res:1246–1258
Yap G, Sil BK, Ng L-C (2011) Use of saliva for early dengue diagnosis. PLoS Negl Trop Dis Public Libr Sci 5(5):e1046. https://doi.org/10.1371/JOURNAL.PNTD.0001046
Yoshizawa JM et al (2013) Salivary biomarkers: toward future clinical and diagnostic utilities. Clin Microbiol Rev Am Soc Microbiol 26(4):781–791. https://doi.org/10.1128/CMR.00021-13
Zhang J et al (2016) Early detection of Zika virus infection among travellers from areas of ongoing transmission in China: table 1. J Travel Med Narnia 23(5):taw047. https://doi.org/10.1093/jtm/taw047
Zhang JM et al (2017) Incidence of human rabies and characterization of rabies virus nucleoprotein gene in dogs in Fujian Province, Southeast China, 2002–2012. BMC Infect Dis 17(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12879-017-2698-9
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2020 Springer Nature Switzerland AG
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
MartÃnez-Subiela, S., Cantos-Barreda, A. (2020). Salivary Diagnosis of Infectious Diseases. In: Tvarijonaviciute, A., MartÃnez-Subiela, S., López-Jornet, P., Lamy, E. (eds) Saliva in Health and Disease. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-37681-9_11
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-37681-9_11
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-030-37680-2
Online ISBN: 978-3-030-37681-9
eBook Packages: Biomedical and Life SciencesBiomedical and Life Sciences (R0)