Abstract
Esophageal perforations remains a challenging clinical problem and is associated with a high mortality rate. Since the introduction of conservative and endoscopic therapies treatment has been increasingly diversified. In this chapter the currently available surgical and endoscopic treatment strategies are introduced and discussed against the background of the most recent literature. The published experiences of esophageal perforations are limited and typically reported from single centers. Timely initial assessment and diagnosis as well as providing a tailored approach for each patient are critically importance to achieve best outcomes. Best evidence currently suggests that this is best provided in high-volume centers where a multidisciplinary team with expertise in esophageal surgery, interventional radiology and endoscopy is available.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
References
Vidarsdottir H, Blondal S, Alfredsson H, Geirsson A, Gudbjartsson T. Oesophageal perforations in Iceland: a whole population study on incidence, aetiology and surgical outcome. Thorac Cardiovasc Surg. 2010;58(8):476–80.
Biancari F, D’Andrea V, Paone R, Di MC, Savino G, Koivukangas V, et al. Current treatment and outcome of esophageal perforations in adults: systematic review and meta-analysis of 75 studies. World J Surg. 2013;37(5):1051–9.
Abbas G, Schuchert MJ, Pettiford BL, Pennathur A, Landreneau J, Landreneau J, et al. Contemporaneous management of esophageal perforation. Surgery. 2009;146(4):749–55.
Kuppusamy MK, Felisky C, Kozarek RA, Schembre D, Ross A, Gan I, et al. Impact of endoscopic assessment and treatment on operative and non-operative management of acute oesophageal perforation. Br J Surg. 2011;98(6):818–24.
Carrott Jr PW, Low DE. Advances in the management of esophageal perforation. Thorac Surg Clin. 2011;21(4):541–55.
Brinster CJ, Singhal S, Lee L, Marshall MB, Kaiser LR, Kucharczuk JC. Evolving options in the management of esophageal perforation. Ann Thorac Surg. 2004;77(4):1475–83.
Merchea A, Cullinane DC, Sawyer MD, Iqbal CW, Baron TH, Wigle D, et al. Esophagogastroduodenoscopy-associated gastrointestinal perforations: a single-center experience. Surgery. 2010;148(4):876–80.
Terblanche J, Krige JE, Bornman PC. The treatment of esophageal varices. Annu Rev Med. 1992;43:69–82.
Vaezi MF. Should surgery replace pneumatic dilation in achalasia? Gastroenterology. 2008;135(5):1794–6.
Nia AM, Abel J, Semmo N, Gassanov N, Er F. 86-year-old patient with vomiting and loss of consciousness: the Mackler triad. Dtsch Med Wochenschr. 2011;1779(36).
Soreide JA, Konradsson A, Sandvik OM, Ovrebo K, Viste A. Esophageal perforation: clinical patterns and outcomes from a patient cohort of Western Norway. Dig Surg. 2012;29(6):494–502.
Buecker A, Wein BB, Neuerburg JM, Guenther RW. Esophageal perforation: comparison of use of aqueous and barium-containing contrast media. Radiology. 1997;202(3):683–6.
Strauss C, Mal F, Perniceni T, Bouzar N, Lenoir S, Gayet B, et al. Computed tomography versus water-soluble contrast swallow in the detection of intrathoracic anastomotic leak complicating esophagogastrectomy (Ivor Lewis): a prospective study in 97 patients. Ann Surg. 2010;251(4):647–51.
Hogan BA, Winter DC, Broe D, Broe P, Lee MJ. Prospective trial comparing contrast swallow, computed tomography and endoscopy to identify anastomotic leak following oesophagogastric surgery. Surg Endosc. 2008;22(3):767–71.
Arantes V, Campolina C, Valerio SH, de Sa RN, Toledo C, Ferrari TA, et al. Flexible esophagoscopy as a diagnostic tool for traumatic esophageal injuries. J Trauma. 2009;66(6):1677–82.
Wu JT, Mattox KL, Wall Jr MJ. Esophageal perforations: new perspectives and treatment paradigms. J Trauma. 2007;63(5):1173–84.
Shaker H, Elsayed H, Whittle I, Hussein S, Shackcloth M. The influence of the ‘golden 24-h rule’ on the prognosis of oesophageal perforation in the modern era. Eur J Cardiothorac Surg. 2010;38(2):216–22.
Lindenmann J, Matzi V, Neuboeck N, Anegg U, Maier A, Smolle J, et al. Management of esophageal perforation in 120 consecutive patients: clinical impact of a structured treatment algorithm. J Gastrointest Surg. 2013;17(6):1036–43.
Soreide JA, Viste A. Esophageal perforation: diagnostic work-up and clinical decision-making in the first 24 hours. Scand J Trauma Resusc Emerg Med. 2011;19:66.
Schmidt SC, Strauch S, Rosch T, Veltzke-Schlieker W, Jonas S, Pratschke J, et al. Management of esophageal perforations. Surg Endosc. 2010;24(11):2809–13.
Vallbohmer D, Holscher AH, Holscher M, Bludau M, Gutschow C, Stippel D, et al. Options in the management of esophageal perforation: analysis over a 12-year period. Dis Esophagus. 2010;23(3):185–90.
Keeling WB, Miller DL, Lam GT, Kilgo P, Miller JI, Mansour KA, et al. Low mortality after treatment for esophageal perforation: a single-center experience. Ann Thorac Surg. 2010;90(5):1669–73.
Hermansson M, Johansson J, Gudbjartsson T, Hambreus G, Jonsson P, Lillo-Gil R, et al. Esophageal perforation in South of Sweden: results of surgical treatment in 125 consecutive patients. BMC Surg. 2010;10:31.
Bhatia P, Fortin D, Inculet RI, Malthaner RA. Current concepts in the management of esophageal perforations: a twenty-seven year Canadian experience. Ann Thorac Surg. 2011;92(1):209–15.
Kuppusamy MK, Hubka M, Felisky CD, Carrott P, Kline EM, Koehler RP, et al. Evolving management strategies in esophageal perforation: surgeons using nonoperative techniques to improve outcomes. J Am Coll Surg. 2011;213(1):164–71.
Minnich DJ, Yu P, Bryant AS, Jarrar D, Cerfolio RJ. Management of thoracic esophageal perforations. Eur J Cardiothorac Surg. 2011;40(4):931–7.
Schweigert M, Beattie R, Solymosi N, Booth K, Dubecz A, Muir A, et al. Endoscopic stent insertion versus primary operative management for spontaneous rupture of the esophagus (Boerhaave syndrome): an international study comparing the outcome. Am Surg. 2013;79(6):634–40.
Freeman RK, Van Woerkom JM, Vyverberg A, Ascioti AJ. Esophageal stent placement for the treatment of spontaneous esophageal perforations. Ann Thorac Surg. 2009;88(1):194–8.
Vogel SB, Rout WR, Martin TD, Abbitt PL. Esophageal perforation in adults: aggressive, conservative treatment lowers morbidity and mortality. Ann Surg. 2005;241(6):1016–21.
Koivukangas V, Biancari F, Merilainen S, Ala-Kokko T, Saarnio J. Esophageal stenting for spontaneous esophageal perforation. J Trauma Acute Care Surg. 2012;73(4):1011–3.
Kimberley KL, Ganesh R, Anton CK. Laparoscopic repair of esophageal perforation due to Boerhaave syndrome. Surg Laparosc Endosc Percutan Tech. 2011;21(4):e203–5.
Cho JS, Kim YD, Kim JW, I HS, Kim MS. Thoracoscopic primary esophageal repair in patients with Boerhaave’s syndrome. Ann Thorac Surg. 2011;91(5):1552–5.
Hunt DR, Wills VL, Weis B, Jorgensen JO, DeCarle DJ, Coo IJ. Management of esophageal perforation after pneumatic dilation for achalasia. J Gastrointest Surg. 2000;4(4):411–5.
van Boeckel PG, Dua KS, Weusten BL, Schmits RJ, Surapaneni N, Timmer R, et al. Fully covered self-expandable metal stents (SEMS), partially covered SEMS and self-expandable plastic stents for the treatment of benign esophageal ruptures and anastomotic leaks. BMC Gastroenterol. 2012;12:19.
Leers JM, Vivaldi C, Schafer H, Bludau M, Brabender J, Lurje G, et al. Endoscopic therapy for esophageal perforation or anastomotic leak with a self-expandable metallic stent. Surg Endosc. 2009;23(10):2258–62.
Freeman RK, Ascioti AJ. Esophageal stent placement for the treatment of perforation, fistula, or anastomotic leak. Semin Thorac Cardiovasc Surg. 2011;23(2):154–8.
Salminen P, Gullichsen R, Laine S. Use of self-expandable metal stents for the treatment of esophageal perforations and anastomotic leaks. Surg Endosc. 2009;23(7):1526–30.
van Heel NC, Haringsma J, Spaander MC, Bruno MJ, Kuipers EJ. Short-term esophageal stenting in the management of benign perforations. Am J Gastroenterol. 2010;105(7):1515–20.
Dai Y, Chopra SS, Kneif S, Hunerbein M. Management of esophageal anastomotic leaks, perforations, and fistulae with self-expanding plastic stents. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg. 2011;141(5):1213–7.
David EA, Kim MP, Blackmon SH. Esophageal salvage with removable covered self-expanding metal stents in the setting of intrathoracic esophageal leakage. Am J Surg. 2011;202(6):796–801.
D’Cunha J, Rueth NM, Groth SS, Maddaus MA, Andrade RS. Esophageal stents for anastomotic leaks and perforations. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg. 2011;142(1):39–46.
van Boeckel PG, Sijbring A, Vleggaar FP, Siersema PD. Systematic review: temporary stent placement for benign rupture or anastomotic leak of the oesophagus. Aliment Pharmacol Ther. 2011;33(12):1292–301.
Endo M, Kaminou T, Ohuchi Y, Sugiura K, Yata S, Adachi A, et al. Development of a new hanging-type esophageal stent for preventing migration: a preliminary study in an animal model of esophagotracheal fistula. Cardiovasc Intervent Radiol. 2012;35(5):1188–94.
Manes G, Corsi F, Pallotta S, Massari A, Foschi D, Trabucchi E. Fixation of a covered self-expandable metal stent by means of a polypectomy snare: an easy method to prevent stent migration. Dig Liver Dis. 2008;40(9):791–3.
Vanbiervliet G, Filippi J, Karimdjee BS, Venissac N, Iannelli A, Rahili A, et al. The role of clips in preventing migration of fully covered metallic esophageal stents: a pilot comparative study. Surg Endosc. 2012;26(1):53–9.
Qadeer MA, Dumot JA, Vargo JJ, Lopez AR, Rice TW. Endoscopic clips for closing esophageal perforations: case report and pooled analysis. Gastrointest Endosc. 2007;66(3):605–11.
Rokszin R, Simonka Z, Paszt A, Szepes A, Kucsa K, Lazar G. Successful endoscopic clipping in the early treatment of spontaneous esophageal perforation. Surg Laparosc Endosc Percutan Tech. 2011;21(6):e311–2.
Pohl J, Borgulya M, Lorenz D, Ell C. Endoscopic closure of postoperative esophageal leaks with a novel over-the-scope clip system. Endoscopy. 2010;42(9):757–9.
Kirschniak A, Subotova N, Zieker D, Konigsrainer A, Kratt T. The Over-The-Scope Clip (OTSC) for the treatment of gastrointestinal bleeding, perforations, and fistulas. Surg Endosc. 2011;25(9):2901–5.
Hagel AF, Naegel A, Lindner AS, Kessler H, Matzel K, Dauth W, et al. Over-the-scope clip application yields a high rate of closure in gastrointestinal perforations and may reduce emergency surgery. J Gastrointest Surg. 2012;16(11):2132–8.
Bona D, Aiolfi A, Rausa E, Bonavina L. Management of Boerhaave’s syndrome with an over-the-scope clip. Eur J Cardiothorac Surg. 2014;45(4):752–4.
Chopra SS, Mrak K, Hunerbein M. The effect of endoscopic treatment on healing of anastomotic leaks after anterior resection of rectal cancer. Surgery. 2009;145(2):182–8.
Weidenhagen R, Gruetzner KU, Wiecken T, Spelsberg F, Jauch KW. Endoluminal vacuum therapy for the treatment of anastomotic leakage after anterior rectal resection. Rozhl Chir. 2008;87(8):397–402.
Loske G, Schorsch T, Muller C. Endoscopic vacuum sponge therapy for esophageal defects. Surg Endosc. 2010;24(10):2531–5.
Kuehn F, Schiffmann L, Rau BM, Klar E. Surgical endoscopic vacuum therapy for anastomotic leakage and perforation of the upper gastrointestinal tract. J Gastrointest Surg. 2012;16(11):2145–50.
Schorsch T, Muller C, Loske G. Endoscopic vacuum therapy of anastomotic leakage and iatrogenic perforation in the esophagus. Surg Endosc. 2013;27(6):2040–5.
Ben-David K, Lopes J, Hochwald S, Draganov P, Forsmark C, Collins D, et al. Minimally invasive treatment of esophageal perforation using a multidisciplinary treatment algorithm: a case series. Endoscopy. 2011;43(2):160–2.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2014 Springer-Verlag London
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Schmidt, H.M., Low, D.E. (2014). Surgical Versus Endoscopic Management for Esophageal Perforations. In: Ferguson, M. (eds) Difficult Decisions in Thoracic Surgery. Difficult Decisions in Surgery: An Evidence-Based Approach, vol 1. Springer, London. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4471-6404-3_32
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4471-6404-3_32
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, London
Print ISBN: 978-1-4471-6403-6
Online ISBN: 978-1-4471-6404-3
eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)