Abstract
Insect parasites and parasitoids are a major component of terrestrial food webs. For parasitoids, categorization is whether feeding activity is located inside or outside its host, if the host is immobilized or allowed to grow, and if the feeding is done by one or many conspecific or heterospecific individuals, and other features. Fossil evidence for parasitism and parasitoidism consists of taxonomic affiliation, morphology, gut contents, coprolites, tissue damage and trace fossils. Ten hemimetabolous and holometabolous orders of insects developed the parasite condition whereas seven orders of holometabolous insects evolved the parasitoid life habit. Modern terrestrial food webs are important for understanding the Mid Mesozoic Parasitoid Revolution. The MMPR began in late Early Jurassic (Phase 1), in which bottom-to-top regulation of terrestrial food webs dominated by inefficient clades of predators were replaced by top-to-bottom control by trophically more efficient parasitoid clades. The MMPR became consolidated in Phase 2 by the end of the Early Cretaceous. These clades later expanded (phases 3 and 4) as parasitoids became significant ecological elements in terrestrial food webs. Bottom-to-top food webs explained by the resource concentration hypothesis characterize pre-MMPR time. During phases 1 and 2 of MMPR (Middle Jurassic to Early Cretaceous), a shift ensued toward top-to-down food webs, explained by the trophic cascade hypothesis, exemplified by hymenopteran parasitoid clades Stephanoidea and Evanioidea. Clade-specific innovations spurring the MMPR included long, flexible ovipositors (wasps), host seeking, triungulin and planidium larvae (mantispids, beetles, twisted-wing parasites, flies), and extrudable, telescoped ovipositors (flies). After the MMPR, in phases 3 and 4 (Late Cretaceous to Recent), parasitoids increased in taxonomic diversity, becoming integrated into food webs that continue to the present day.
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Acknowledgements
We are grateful to Kenneth De Baets and John Huntley for the invitation to provide this review. We thank two reviewers for constructive evaluations of this contribution. Jennifer Wood assembled the figures; Jon Eizyk ably secured copyright permissions for reproduction of the figures. The Smithsonian Institution Libraries provided facilities and interlibrary loan articles essential for the completion of this review. Kevin Johnson and Sandra Schachat provided valuable feedback. We thank David Smith and Matthew Buffington for access to Hymenoptera specimens that were examined for the Stephanoidea and Evanioidea studies. The Paleobiology Data Base was used in inquiries regarding the fossil records of fossil taxa mentioned in this report. This is contribution 374 of the Evolution of Terrestrial Ecosystems Consortium at the National Museum of Natural History, in Washington, D.C.
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Labandeira, C.C., Li, L. (2021). The History of Insect Parasitism and the Mid-Mesozoic Parasitoid Revolution. In: De Baets, K., Huntley, J.W. (eds) The Evolution and Fossil Record of Parasitism. Topics in Geobiology, vol 49. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-42484-8_11
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