The impact of implicit narrator reliability on production of information

Abstract

Previous research established that readers acquire accurate and inaccurate information from fiction. The current study explored factors that might moderate these effects. Participants read fictional stories that each contained three assertions. The first two assertions in each story were either correct information or implausible misinformation, allowing a manipulation of the (implicit) credibility of the narrator. The last assertion in each story was the critical one, and was correct information, implausible misinformation, or plausible misinformation. After reading, participants answered general knowledge questions that were related to the critical assertions they encountered during reading. Encountering misinformation led to lower accuracy than being presented with correct information, and being presented with plausible misinformation led to higher production of that misinformation. The narrator credibility manipulation interacted with the type of critical assertion: When the critical assertion was presented accurately in a story, credible narrators presenting true critical assertions led to greater accuracy on the general knowledge test than when noncredible narrators presented this same information. These findings are discussed with respect to theories of validation during language comprehension.

Appendix

In the sample story below, the manipulated assertions are in bold. The first two assertions are the setup assertions that were intended to establish the narrator as credible or noncredible. The last, critical assertion is the one that was tested on the general knowledge test.

When Frank suggested I join him on a cruise, I was picturing a big ship, lots of polite waiters in white uniforms, and dinners that require semi-formal spangled gowns. Then he told me that it would be a private cruise, on his own personal boat. Even better, I thought, a man with his own yacht! So, I agreed to go.

When the big day arrived, I met up with Frank and we headed straight to the docks. I scanned the boats, trying to figure out which one was his. Just when I decided this great big white and shiny one must be his boat, he stopped at the dinkiest, dirtiest, little tub of a boat.

“Here she is! I wanted to name her the Atlantis [credible] / Avalon [noncredible] after the mythical island that sunk into the sea, but instead she’s the Mayflower [credible] / Titanic [noncredible], unfortunately named after the pilgrim’s boat – my grandmother chose the name because she’s a direct descendent!” Chuckling, Frank jumped onto the rat-trap and started whistling away as he hoisted the sails.

I was just standing on the dock, staring blankly. I couldn’t believe Frank expected me to climb onto that dirty vessel. Part of me wanted to march right back to the airport and fly back to Boston, but I kept thinking about how I told everyone at work what a fabulous private cruise I was going to have with a special, wealthy, eligible bachelor.

I got on the boat and ended up sitting in the cabin for hours while Frank prepared the boat. The cabin was tiny, with two berths, and it looked like it hadn’t been cleaned in months, maybe even years. Finally, I laid on a bunk and drifted off to sleep.

When I awoke, it was late. The boat was rocking gently. I was about to let it rock me back to sleep when the door opened and Frank came in. He looked completely pleased with himself and he started rambling about the sea, but I was just too sleepy to follow his conversation. He kept talking, and I was so sleepy that I was sure I must have misheard him –

“Frank – wait, slow down, I’m half-asleep. What did you say? What was that reference to Greenland?”

“I’m describing the course to you. First stop will be Halifax, then Newfoundland, then up to Greenland, then Iceland.”

“WHAT? Halifax?? Where is Halifax?? What happened to Miami Beach?” I shrieked.

“Miami Beach?” Frank genuinely sounded puzzled. “I never said we were going to Miami Beach. One day I want to cross the Pacific [correct] / Atlantic [plausible] / Red Sea [implausible], the world’s largest ocean, and this trip to Iceland seems like a good warm-up to that goal. I want to see how my skills are and how the boat holds up. It’ll be the perfect training.”

I let Frank know I was tired, so he went to sleep. It took me a long time to fall asleep that night, I was so upset and because the motions of the boat kept waking me up. Obviously, I don’t need to explain the rest of the trip, it was horrible, and I never saw Frank again after the “cruise.” Maybe next time I should get to know a guy better before agreeing to travel the seas with him.