Abstract
Much research has investigated the representation of implicitly learned motor sequences: Do subjects learn sequences of stimuli, responses, response locations, or some combination? Most of the work on this subject indicates that when sequences are learned implicitly, it is in terms of response locations. The present work investigated the representation of explicitly learned motor sequences. In four experiments, we found consistent evidence that explicitly learned sequences are represented in terms of stimulus locations. This conclusion held true for both self-report measures (subjects said that they learned stimuli) and performance measures, but when stimuli changed, performance degraded. We interpret these data in a multiple-memory-systems framework.
Article PDF
Similar content being viewed by others
Avoid common mistakes on your manuscript.
References
Ashby, F. G., Maddox, W. T., &Bohil, C. J. (2002). Observational versus feedback training in rule-based and information-integration category learning.Memory & Cognition,30, 666–677.
Ashby, F. G., &Spiering, B. J. (2004). The neurobiology of category learning.Behavioral & Cognitive Neuroscience Reviews,3, 101–113.
Clegg, B. A. (2005). Stimulus-specific sequence representation in serial reaction time tasks.Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology,58A, 1087–1101.
Cohen, A., Ivry, R. I., &Keele, S. W. (1990). Attention and structure in sequence learning.Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, & Cognition,16, 17–30.
Cohen, N. J., Poldrack, R. A., &Eichenbaum, H. (1997). Memory for items and memory for relations in the procedural/declarative memory framework.Memory,5, 131–178.
Cohen, N. J., &Squire, L. R. (1980). Preserved learning and retention of pattern-analyzing skill in amnesia: Dissociation of knowing how and knowing that.Science,210, 207–210.
Curran, T., &Keele, S. W. (1993). Attentional and nonattentional forms of sequence learning.Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, & Cognition,19, 189–202.
Foster, J. K., &Jelicic, M. (Eds.) (1999).Memory: Systems, process, or function? Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Gabrieli, J. D. E. (1998). Cognitive neuroscience of human memory.Annual Review of Psychology,4, 87–115.
Gold, P. E., McIntyre, C., McNay, E., Stefani, M., &Korol, D. L. (2001). Neurochemical referees of dueling memory systems. In P. E. Gold & W. T. Greenough (Eds.),Memory consolidation: Essays in honor of James L. McGaugh (pp. 219–248). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Goschke, T. (1998). Implicit learning of perceptual and motor sequences: Evidence for independent learning systems. In P. A. Frensch (Ed.),Handbook of implicit learning (pp. 401–444). New York: Sage.
Graf, P., &Schacter, D. L. (1985). Implicit and explicit memory for new associations in normal and amnesic subjects.Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, & Cognition,11, 501–518.
Grafton, S. T., Hazeltine, E., &Ivry, R. B. (1998). Abstract and effector-specific representations of motor sequences identified with PET.Journal of Neuroscience,18, 9420–9428.
Grafton, S. T., Salidis, J., &Willingham, D. B. (2001). Motor learning of compatible and incompatible visuomotor maps.Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience,13, 217–231.
Howard, J. H., Mutter, S. A., &Howard, D. V. (1992). Serial pattern learning by event observation.Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, & Cognition,18, 1029–1039.
Jiménez, L., &Méndez, C. (1999). Which attention is needed for implicit sequence learning?Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, & Cognition,25, 236–259.
Keele, S. W., Jennings, P., Jones, S., Caulton, D., &Cohen, A. (1995). On the modularity of sequence representation.Journal of Motor Behavior,27, 17–30.
Kesner, R. P. (1998). Neurobiological views of memory. In R. P. Kesner (Ed.),Neurobiology of learning and memory (pp. 361–416). San Diego: Academic Press.
Koch, I., &Hoffmann, J. (2000). The role of stimulus-based and response-based spatial information in sequence learning.Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, & Cognition,26, 863–882.
Mayr, U. (1996). Spatial attention and implicit sequence learning: Evidence for independent learning of spatial and nonspatial sequences.Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, & Cognition,22, 350–364.
Nattkemper, D., &Prinz, W. (1997). Stimulus and response anticipation in a serial reaction time task.Psychological Research,60, 98–112.
Nissen, M. J., &Bullemer, P. (1987). Attentional requirements of learning: Evidence from performance measures.Cognitive Psychology,19, 1–32.
Poldrack, R. A., Clark, J., Paré-Blagoev, E. J., Shohamy, D., Moyano, J. C., Myers, C., &Gluck, M. A. (2001). Interactive memory systems in the human brain.Nature,414, 546–550.
Poldrack, R. A., &Packard, M. G. (2003). Competition among multiple memory systems: Converging evidence from animal and human brain studies.Neuropsychologia,41, 245–251.
Poldrack, R. A., Prabhakaran, V., Seger, C. A., &Gabrieli, J. D. E. (1999). Striatal activation during acquisition of a cognitive skill.Neuropsychology,13, 564–574.
Poldrack, R. A., &Rodriguez, P. (2004). How do memory systems interact? Evidence from human classification learning.Neurobiology of Learning & Memory,82, 324–332.
Reber, P. J., &Squire, L. R. (1998). Encapsulation of implicit and explicit memory in sequence learning.Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience,10, 248–263.
Reed, J., &Johnson, P. (1994). Assessing implicit learning with indirect tests: Determining what is learned about sequence structure.Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, & Cognition,20, 585–594.
Remillard, G. (2003). Pure perceptual-based sequence learning.Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, & Cognition,29, 581–597.
Schacter, D. L., &Tulving, E. (Eds.) (1994).Memory systems 1994. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Squire, L. R. (1992). Memory and the hippocampus: A synthesis from findings with rats, monkeys, and humans.Psychological Review,99, 195–231.
White, N. M., &McDonald, R. J. (2002). Multiple parallel memory systems in the brain of the rat.Neurobiology of Learning & Memory,77, 125–184.
Willingham, D. B. (1998). A neuropsychological theory of motor skill learning.Psychological Review,105, 558–584.
Willingham, D. B. (1999). Implicit motor sequence learning is not purely perceptual.Memory & Cognition,27, 561–572.
Willingham, D. B., &Goedert-Eschmann, K. (1999). The relation between implicit and explicit learning: Evidence for parallel development.Psychological Science,10, 531–534.
Willingham, D. B., Nissen, M. J., &Bullemer, P. (1989). On the development of procedural knowledge.Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, & Cognition,15, 1047–1060.
Willingham, D. B., Salidis, J., &Gabrieli, J. D. E. (2002). Direct comparison of neural systems mediating conscious and unconscious skill learning.Journal of Neurophysiology,88, 1451–1460.
Willingham, D. B., Wells, L. A., Farrell, J. M., &Stemwedel, M. E. (2000). Implicit motor sequence learning is represented in response locations.Memory & Cognition,28, 366–375.
Ziessler, M. (1994). The impact of motor responses on serial-pattern learning.Psychological Research,57, 30–41.
Ziessler, M. (1998). Response-effect learning as a major component of implicit serial learning.Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, & Cognition,24, 962–978.
Ziessler, M., &Nattkemper, D. (2001). Learning of event sequences is based on response-effect learning: Further evidence from a serial reaction task.Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, & Cognition,27, 595–613.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Additional information
This work was supported by Grants R01 NS040106-05, R01 MH065598-01A1, and R01 AG24106-01A1.
Note—This article was accepted by the previous editorial team, when Colin M. MacLeod was Editor.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Knee, R., Thomason, S., Ashe, J. et al. The representation of explicit motor sequence knowledge. Memory & Cognition 35, 326–333 (2007). https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03193453
Received:
Accepted:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03193453