Abstract
Data on the reactions and processes occurring under the conditions of the alkaline activation of carbon substances—the production of activated carbons by the thermolysis of carbon substances in the presence of alkali metal hydroxides MOH—are summarized. The following most important activation processes were recognized: (1) the interaction of functional groups with MOH and the formation of intermediate structures with the C-O-M group; (2) their conversion into metal-containing compounds (primarily, M2CO3 and M2O) in reactions with carbon, especially, with terminal C atoms on the periphery of graphenes; and (3) the reduction of M2CO3 and M2O to the metal M, which is intercalated into the interlayer spaces of crystallites. The mechanism of alkaline activation was studied in most detail for KOH as an activating agent. The thermally initiated reduction of potassium oxide with carbon and the intercalation of potassium metal are the two most important processes for the development of the microporosity of activated carbon.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Marsh, H. and Rodriguez-Reinoso, F., Activated Carbon, Amsterdam: Elsevier, 2006.
Evans, M.J.B., Halliop, E., and Macdonald, J.A.F., Carbon, 1999, vol. 37, no. 2, p. 269.
Yang, S., Hu, H., and Chen, G., Carbon, 2002, vol. 40, no. 3, p. 277.
Bansal, R.C. and Goyal, M., Activated Carbon Adsorption, Boca Raton, FL: Taylor & Francis Group, 2005.
Jorda-Beneyto, M., Suarez-Garcia, F., Lozano-Castello, D., et al., @Carbon, 2007, vol. 45, no. 2, p. 293.
Celzard, A. and Fierro, V., Energy Fuels, 2005, vol. 19, no. 2, p. 573.
Conway, B.E., Electrochemical Supercapacitors—Scientific Fundamentals and Technological Applications, New York: Kluwer Acad. Plenum.
Guy, P.J. and Perry, G.J., Fuel, 1992, vol. 71, no. 10, p. 1083.
Amarasekera, G., Scarlett, M.J., and Mainwaring, D.E., Carbon, 1998, vol. 36, no. 78, p. 1071.
Ehrburger, P., Addoun, A., Addoun, F., and Donnet, J.-B., Fuel, 1986, vol. 65, p. 1447.
Verheyen, V., Rathbone, R., Jagtoyen, M., and Derbyshire, F., Carbon, 1995, vol. 33, no. 6, p. 763.
Yoshizawa, N., Maruyama, K., Yamada, Y., et al., Fuel, 2002, vol. 81, no. 15, p. 1717.
Lillo-Rodenas, M.A., Cazorla-Amoros, D., and Linares-Solano, A., Carbon, 2003, vol. 41, no. 2, p. 267.
Lillo-Rodenas, M.A., Juan-Juan, J., CazorlaAmoros, D., and Linares-Solano, A., Carbon, 2004, vol. 42, no. 7, p. 1371.
Lillo-Rodenas, M.A., Marco-Lozar, J.P., Cazorla-Amoros, D., and Linares-Solano, A., J. Anal. Appl. Pyrolysis, 2007, vol. 80, no. 1, p. 166.
Diaz-Teran, J., Nevskaia, D.M., Fierro, J.L.G., et al., Micropor. Mesopor. Mater., 2003, vol. 60, p. 173.
Robau-Sanchez, A., Cordero de la Rosa, F., Aguilar-Pliego, J., and Aguilar-Elguezabal, A., J. Porous Mater., 2006, vol. 13, no. 2, p. 123.
Freitas, J.C.C., Schettino, M.A., Cunha, A.G., et al., Carbon, 2007, vol. 45, no. 5, p. 1097.
Tay, T., Ucar, S., and Karagoz, S., J. Hazardous Mater., 2009, vol. 165, p. 481.
Yamashita, Y. and Ouchi, K., Carbon, 1982, vol. 20, no. 1, p. 47.
Xue, R. and Shen, Z., Carbon, 2003, vol. 41, no. 9, p. 1862.
Marsh, H., Yan, D.S., O’Grady, T.M., and Wennenberg, A., Carbon, 1984, vol. 22, no. 6, p. 603.
Chunlan, L., Shaoping, X., Yixiong, G., et al., Carbon, 2005, no. 11, p. 2295.
Qiao, W. and Yoon, S.-H., Energy Fuels, 2006, vol. 20, no. 4, p. 1680.
Lu, C., Xu, S., Wang, M., et al., Carbon, 2007, vol. 45, no. 1, p. 206.
Raymundo-Pinero, E., Azais, P., Cacciaguerra, T., et al., Carbon, 2005, vol. 43, no. 4, p. 786.
Zhu, Y., Murali, S., Stoller, M.D., et al., Science, 2011, vol. 332, no. 6037, p. 1537.
Tamarkina, Yu.V., Nauch. Tr. Donetsk. Nats. Tekhn. Univ., Ser. Khim. Khim. Tekhnol., 2010, no. 14 (162), p. 70.
Kucherenko, V.A., Shendrik, T.G., Tamarkina, Y.V., and Mysyk, R.D., Carbon, 2010, vol. 48, no. 15, p. 4556.
Foo, K.Y. and Hameed, B.H., Chem. Eng. J., 2012, vol. 180, p. 66.
Foo, K.Y. and Hameed, B.H., Chem. Eng. J., 2012, vol. 184, p. 57.
Foo, K.Y. and Hameed, B.H., Bioresource Technol., 2012, vol. 112, p. 143.
He, X., Li, R., Qiu, J., Xie, K., et al., Carbon, 2012, vol. 50, no. 13, p. 4911.
Kasatochkin, V.I. and Larina, N.K., Stroenie i svoistva prirodnykh uglei (Structure and Properties of Natural Coals), Moscow: Nedra, 1975.
Kelemen, S.R., Freund, H., and Mims, C.A., Journal of Catalys, vol. 97, no. 1, p. 228.
Pehlivan, E. and Arslan, G., Fuel Process. Technol., 2007, vol. 88, no. 1, p. 99.
Guo, X., Zhang, S., and Shan, X., -q, J. Hazardous Mater., 2008, vol. 151.
Lazarov, L. and Angelova, G., Struktura i reaktsii uglei (Structure and Reactions of Coals), Sofia: Izd. Bolgarskoi Akad. Nauk, 1990.
Shemyakin, M.M. and Shchukina, L.A., Usp. Khim., 1957, vol. 26, no. 5, p. 528.
Kukharenko, T.A., Okislennye v plastakh burye i kamennye ugli (In Situ Oxidized Brown and Black Coals), Moscow: Nedra, 1972.
Steelink, C., Coal Sci., 1966, vol. 55, p. 80.
Kucherenko, V.A. and Zubova, T.I., Zh. Obshch. Khim., 1995, vol. 65, no. 8, p. 1256.
Rudakov, E.S., Kucherenko, V.A., Poluboyarov, V.A., et al., Dokl. Akad. Nauk USSR, Ser. B., 1983, o. 10, p. 62.
Sancier, K.M., Fuel, 1984, vol. 63, no. 5, p. 679.
Tamarkina, Yu.V., Cand. Sci. (Chem.) Dissertation, Donetsk: Inst. Phys.-Org. Chem. Coal Chem., 2002.
Nesmeyanov, A.N. and Nesmeyanov, N.A., Nachala organicheskoi khimii (Fundamentals of Organic Chemistry), Moscow: Khimiya, 1974, vol 2.
Goikhman, A.Sh. and Solomko, V.P., Vysokomolekulyarnye soedineniya vklyucheniya (High-Molecular-Weight Inclusion Compounds), Kiev: Naukova Dumka, 1982.
Goikhman, A.Sh., Kaller, A.L., Matsibora, N.P., and Polyakova, G.V., Zh. Prikl. Khim., 1980, vol. 53, no. 2, p. 410.
Camier, R.G. and Siemon, S.R., Fuel, 1978.
Bratchun, V.I., Sapunov, V.A., Zverev, I.V., et al., Khim. Tverd. Topl. (Moscow), 1987, no. 6, p. 23.
Chernysh, I.G., Karpov, I.I., Prikhod’ko, G.P., and Shai, V.M., Fiziko-khimicheskie svoistva grafita i ego soedinenii (Physicochemical Properties of Graphite and Its Compounds), Kiev: Naukova Dumka, 1990.
Zaikovskii, A.V., Cand. Sci. (Chem.) Dissertation, Donetsk: Inst. Phys.-Org. Chem. Coal Chem., 1993.
Tamarkina, Yu.V., Bovan, L.A., and Kucherenko, V.A., Vopr. Khim. Khim. Tekhnol., 2008, no. 5, p. 77.
Utz, B.R., Nowak, M.A., and Fauth, D.J., Proc. Int. Conf. on Coal Science, Tokyo, 1989, vol. 1, p. 197.
Baltrus, J.P., Diehl, J.R., D’Este, J.R., and Ladner, E.P., Fuel, 1990, vol. 69, no. 1, p. 117.
Srivastava, S.K., Saran, T., Sinha, J., et al., Fuel, 1988, vol. 67, p. 1680.
Bovan, L.A., Tamko, V.A., Tamarkina, Yu.V., and Kucherenko, V.A., Khim. Tverd. Topl. (Moscow), 2009, no. 5, p. 14.
Kucherenko, V.A., Sapunov, V.A., Zubova, T.I., et al., Khim. Tverd. Topl. (Moscow), 1992, no. 4, pp. 96–101.
Kucherenko, V.A., Zubova, T.I., Shapranov, V.V., and Yaroshenko, A.P., Ukr. Khim. Zh., 1992, vol. 58, no. 4, p. 446.
Todres, Z.V., Ion-radikaly v organicheskom sinteze (Radical Ions in Organic Synthesis), Moscow: Khimiya, 1986.
Delannay, F., Tysoe, W.T., Heinemann, H., and Somorjai, G.A., Appl. Catal., 1984, vol. 10, no. 2, p. 111.
Karagoz, S., Bhaskar, T., Muto, A., and Sakata, Y., Fuel, 2004, vol. 83, nos 17–18, p. 2293.
Klar, E., Politsiklicheskie uglevodorody (Polycyclic Hydrocarbons), Moscow: Khimiya, 1971, vol. 2.
Roldan, S., Villar, I., and Ruiz, V., Energy Fuels, 2010, vol. 24, no. 6, p. 3422.
Fuente, E., Gil, R.R., Giron, R.P., et al., Carbon, 2010, vol. 48, no. 4, p. 1032.
Armandi, M., Bonelli, B., Geobaldo, F., and Garrone, E., Micropor. Mesopor. Mater., 2010, vol. 132, no. 3, p. 414.
Di Blasi, C., Galgano, A., and Branca, C., Energy Fuels, 2009, vol. 23, no. 2, p. D. 1045.
Jibril, B.Y., Al-Maamari, R.S., Hegde, G., et al., J. Anal. Appl. Pyrolysis, 2007, vol. 80, no. 2, p. 277.
Yang, T. and Lua, A.C., Micropor. Mesopor. Mater., 2003, vol. 63, nos. 1–3, p. 113.
Xiao, R., Xu, S., Li, Q., and Su, Y., J. Anal. Appl. Pyrolysis, 2012, vol. 96, p. 120.
Martinez-Escandell, M., Monteiro de Castro, M., Molina-Sabio, M., and Rodriguez-Reinoso, F., Fuel Process. Technol., 2013, vol. 106, p. 402.
Matsukata, M., Fujikawa, T., Kikuchi, E., and Morita, Y., Energy Fuels, 1988, vol. 2, no. 6, p. 750.
Lu, C., Xu, S., and Liu, C., J. Anal. Appl. Pyrolysis, 2010, vol. 87, no. 2, p. 282.
Schmid, M., Mahfouz, R., and Bouhrara, M., Carbon, 2012, vol. 50, no. 14, p. 5292.
Takai, K., Eto, S., Inaguma, M., and Enoki, T., Chem. Solids, 2009, vol. 69, nos. 5–6, p. 1182.
Hu, Z. and Vansant, E.F., Microporous materials, 1995, vol. 3, no. 6, p. D. 603.
McKee, D.W., Chemistry and Physics of Coal Utilization, New York: APS, 1980.
Strelko, V.V., Gerasimenko, N.V., Kartel’, N.T., et al., Khim. Tverd. Topl. (Moscow), 2003, no. 1, p. 77.
Mochida, I., Nakamura, E., Maeda, K., and Takeshita, K., Carbon, 1975, vol. 13, no. 6, p. 489.
Robau-Sanchez, A., Aguilar-Elguezabal, A., and Aguilar-Pliego, J., Micropor. Mesopor. Mater., 2005, vol. 85.
Gomez-Serrano, V., Sanchez-Iniguez, F., Bernalte-Garcia, A., and Valenzuela-Calahorro, C., Fuel, 1990, vol. 69, no. 3, p. 391.
McKee D.W., Fuel, 1983, vol. 62, no. 2, p. 170.
Cerfontain, M.B. and Moulijn, J.A., Fuel, 1983, vol. 62, no. 2, p. 256.
Mims, C.A., Fuel, 1983, vol. 62, no. 2, p. 730.
Kapteijn, F., Jurriaans, J., and Moulijn, J.A., Fuel, 1983, vol. 62, no. 2, p. 249.
Vorob’ev, V.N., Fedorova, I.B., Martynov, Yu.N., and Andryushchenko, L.N., in Issledovanie sostava i svoistv uglei Vostochnoi Sibiri i produktov ikh pererabotki (Study of the Composition and Properties of Coals from Eastern Siberia and Their Conversion Products), Irkutsk: Izd. Irkutsk. Univ., 1986, p. 60.
Wigmans, T., Goebel, J.C., and Moulijn, J.A., Carbon, 1983, vol. 21, no. 3, p. 295.
Otowa, T., Tanibata, R., and Itoh, M., Gas Separation Purification, 1993, vol. 7, no. 4, p. 241.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Additional information
Original Russian Text © Yu.V. Tamarkina, V.A. Kucherenko, T.G. Shendrik, 2014, published in Khimiya Tverdogo Topliva, 2014, No. 4, pp. 38–46.
About this article
Cite this article
Tamarkina, Y.V., Kucherenko, V.A. & Shendrik, T.G. Alkaline activation of coals and carbon-base materials. Solid Fuel Chem. 48, 251–259 (2014). https://doi.org/10.3103/S0361521914040119
Received:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.3103/S0361521914040119