References
Postal M, Costallat LTL, Appenzeller S. Neuropsychiatric manifestations in systemic lupus erythematosus: epidemiology, pathophysiology and management. CNS Drugs 2011; 25(9): 721–36
Bertsias GK, Ioannidis JP, Aringer M, et al. EULAR recommendations for the management of systemic lupus erythematosus with neuropsychiatric manifestations: report of a task force of the EULAR standing committee for clinical affairs. Ann Rheum Dis 2010 Dec; 69(12): 2074–82
The American College of Rheumatology nomenclature and case definitions for neuropsychiatric lupus syndromes. Arthritis Rheum 1999 Apr; 42(4): 599–608
Bertsias GK, Boumpas DT. Pathogenesis, diagnosis and management of neuropsychiatric SLE manifestations. Nat Rev Rheumatol 2010 Jun; 6(6): 358–67
Hanly JG, McCurdy G, Fougere L, et al. Neuropsychiatric events in systemic lupus erythematosus: attribution and clinical significance. J Rheumatol 2004; 31(11): 2156–62
Hanly JG, Harrison MJ. Management of neuropsychiatric lupus. Best Pract Res Clin Rheumatol 2005 Oct; 19(5): 799–821
Sanna G, Bertolaccini ML, Mathieu A. Central nervous system lupus: a clinical approach to therapy. Lupus 2003; 12(12): 935–42
Barile-Fabris L, Ariza-Andraca R, Olguín-Ortega L, et al. Controlled clinical trial of IV cyclophosphamide versus IV methylprednisolone in severe neurological manifestations in systemic lupus erythematosus. Ann Rheum Dis 2005 Apr; 64(4): 620–5
Heinlein AC, Gertner E. Marked inflammation in catastrophic longitudinal myelitis associated with systemic lupus erythematosus. Lupus 2007; 16(10): 823–6
Crowther MA, Ginsberg JS, Julian J, et al. A comparison of two intensities of warfarin for the prevention of recurrent thrombosis in patients with the antiphospholipid antibody syndrome. N Engl J Med 2003; 349(12): 1133–8
Mok CC, Lau CS, Wong RW. Treatment of lupus psychosis with oral cyclophosphamide followed by azathioprine maintenance: an open-label study. Am J Med 2003 Jul; 115(1): 59–62
Cuadrado MJ, Khamashta MA, Ballesteros A, et al. Can neurologic manifestations of Hughes (antiphospholipid) syndrome be distinguished from multiple sclerosis? Analysis of 27 patients and review of the literature. Medicine (Baltimore) 2000; 79(1): 57–68
Bosma GP, Rood MJ, Zwinderman AH, et al. Evidence of central nervous system damage in patients with neuropsychiatric systemic lupus erythematosus, demonstrated by magnetization transfer imaging. Arthritis Rheum 2000; 43(1): 48–54
Ramos PC, Mendez MJ, Ames PR, et al. Pulse cyclophosphamide in the treatment of neuropsychiatric systemic lupus erythematosus. Clin Exp Rheumatol 1996 May–Jun; 14(3): 295–9
Xu J, Cheng Y, Chai P, et al. White-matter volume reduction and the protective effect of immunosuppressive therapy in systemic lupus erythematosus patients with normal appearance by conventional magnetic resonance imaging. J Rheumatol 2010 May; 37(5): 974–86
Valesini G, Priori R, Francia A, et al. Central nervous system involvement in systemic lupus erythematosus: a new therapeutic approach with intrathecal dexamethasone and methotrexate. Springer Semin Immunopathol 1994; 16(2–3): 313–21
Dong Y, Zhang X, Tang F, et al. Intrathecal injection with methotrexate plus dexamethasone in the treatment of central nervous system involvement in systemic lupus erythematosus. Chin Med J (Engl) 2001 Jul; 114(7): 764–6
Grisanti M, Nader A, Cacciuttolo R. Central nervous system involvement due to systemic lupus erythematosus/antiphospholipid syndrome: successful treatment with mycophenolate mofetil. Lupus 2001; 10: S31
Schroeder JO, Euler HH. Treatment combining plasmapheresis and pulse cyclophosphamide in severe systemic lupus erythematosus. Adv Exp Med Biol 1989; 260: 203–13
Dall’Era M, Wofsy D. Biologic therapy for systemic lupus erythematosus. Discov Med 2010; 9(44): 20–3
Merrill JT, Neuwelt CM, Wallace DJ, et al. Efficacy and safety of rituximab in moderately-to-severely active systemic lupus erythematosus: the randomized, double-blind, phase II/III systemic lupus erythematosus evaluation of rituximab trial. Arthritis Rheum 2010 Jan; 62(1): 222–33
Murray E, Perry M. Off-label use of rituximab in systemic lupus erythematosus: a systematic review. Clin Rheumatol 2010 Jul; 29(7): 707–16
Turner-Stokes T, Lu TY, Ehrenstein MR, et al. The efficacy of repeated treatment with B-cell depletion therapy in systemic lupus erythematosus: an evaluation. Rheumatology (Oxford) 2011 Aug; 50(8): 1401–8
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Manage the neuropsychiatric manifestations of systemic lupus erythematosus with mostly empirical treatments. Drugs Ther Perspect 28, 11–14 (2012). https://doi.org/10.2165/11208750-000000000-00000
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.2165/11208750-000000000-00000