Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Drug Effects on the Electrocardiogram

A Review of Their Clinical Importance

  • Review Article
  • Published:
Drugs Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Summary

It is clear that many patients are now being treated with multiple pharmacological agents which may alter membrane function and ionic fluxes across membranes. Therefore, these agents will frequently influence the electrical behavioural of all excitable tissues including the myocardial cell. The changes in the myocardial cell are often reflected by changes, some subtle, some obvious, on the body surface electrocardiogram. Thus, the electrocardiogram provides the physician with a reasonably simple and inexpensive tool for monitoring drug effects and for detecting changes that may be toxic and/or life-threatening. For this reason, an appreciation of these changes by the noncardiologist has become increasingly important.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Anastasiou-Nana MI, Anderson JL, Stewart JR, Crevey BJ, Yanowitz FG, et al. Occurrence of exercise-induced and spontaneous wide complex tachycardia during therapy with flecainide for complex ventricular arrhythmias: a probable proarrhythmic effect. American Heart Journal 113: 1071–1077, 1987.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Anderson JL, Mason JW, Winkle RA, Meffin PJ, Fowles RE, et al. Clinical electrophysiology effects of tocainide. Circulation 57: 685–691, 1978.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Antman EM, Stone PH, Muller JE, Braunwald E. Calcium channel blocking agents in the treatment of cardiovascular disorders. Part I: basic and clinical electrophysiological effects. Annals of Internal Medicine 93: 875–885, 1980.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Arita M, Surawicz B. Electrophysiologic effects of phenothiazines on human atrial fibers. Japanese Heart Journal 14: 398–405, 1973.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ashraf M, Halverson C. Ultrastructural modifications of nexuses (gap junctions) during early myocardial ischemia. Journal of Molecular and Cellular Cardiology 10: 263–269, 1978.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bajaj AK, Kopelman HA, Wikswo Jr JP, Cassidy F, Woosley RL, et al. Frequency-and orientation-dependent effects of mexiletine and quinidine on conduction in the intact dog heart. Circulation 75: 1065–1073, 1987.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ban TA, St Jean A. The effect of phenothiazines on the electrocardiogram. Canadian Medical Association Journal 91: 537–540, 1964.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bashour TT, Fahdul H, Cheng T. Electrocardiographic abnormalities in alcoholic cardiomyopathy. A study of 65 patients. Chest 68: 24–27, 1975.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bayer R, Hennekes R, Kaufmann R, Mannhold R. Ionotropic and electrophysiological actions of verapamil and D600 in mammalian myocardium: I. Pattern of ionotropic effects of the racemic compounds. Naunyn-Schmiedeberg’s Archives of Pharmacology 290: 49–68, 1975.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Beerman B, Edhag O, Vallin H. Advanced heart block aggravated by carbamazepine. British Heart Journal 37: 668–671, 1975.

    Google Scholar 

  • Belardinelli L, Isenberg G. Actions of adenosine and isoproterenol on isolated mammalian ventricular myocytes. Circulation Research 53: 287–297, 1983.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Benditt DB, Tobler HG, Benson DW, Gornick CC, Dunnigan A, et al. Antiarrhythmic actions of bretylium, bethanidine and related compounds. Clinical Program Pacing Electrophysiology 1: 349–362, 1983.

    Google Scholar 

  • Berg GR, Hutter AM, Pfister RC. Electrocardiographic abnormalities associated with intravenous urography. New England Journal of Medicine 289: 87–88, 1973.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Biberman L, Sarma RN, Surawicz. T-wave abnormalities during hyperventilation and isoproterenol infusion. American Heart Journal 81: 166–174, 1971.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bibler MR, Chou TC, Toltzis RJ, Wade PA. Recurrent ventricular tachycardia due to pentamidine-induced cardiotoxicity. Chest 94: 1303–1306, 1988.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bigger JT, Bassett AL, Hoffman BF. Electrophysiological effects of diphenylhydantoin on canine Purkinje fibers. Circulation Research 22: 221–236, 1968.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bigger JT, Sahar DI. Clinical types of proarrhythmic response to antiarrhythmic drugs. American Journal of Cardiology 59: 2E–9E, 1987.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Boehnert MT, Lovejoy FH. Value of the QRS duration versus the serum drug level in predicting seizures and ventricular arrhythmias after an acute overdose of tricyclic antidepressants. New England Journal of Medicine 313: 474–479, 1985.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Booth BH, Patterson R. Electrocardiographic changes during human anaphylaxis. Journal of the American Medical Association 211: 627–631, 1970.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bristow MR, Ginsburg R, Harrison DC. Histamine and the human heart: the other receptor system. American Journal of Cardiology 49: 249–251, 1982.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bristow MR, Thompson PD, Martin RP, Mason JW, Billingham ME, et al. Early anthracycline cardiotoxicity. American Journal of Medicine 65: 823–832, 1978.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bristow MR. Toxic cardiomyopathy due to doxorubicin. Hospital Practice 17: 101–111, 1982.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Browne KF, Prystowsky EN, Heger JJ, Cerimele BJ, Fineberg N, et al. Prolongation of the QT interval induced by probucol: demonstration of a method for determining QT interval change induced by a drug. American Heart Journal 107: 680–684, 1984.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Buchanan JW, Saito T, Gettes LS. The effects of antiarrhythmic drugs, stimulation frequency and potassium-induced resting membrane potential changes on conduction velocity and dV/ dt !max in guinea pig myocardium. Circulation Research 56: 696–703, 1985.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Burrows GD, Vohra J, Hunt D, Sloman JF, Scoggins BA, et al. Cardiac effects of different tricyclic antidepressant drugs. British Journal of Psychiatry 129: 335–341, 1976.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Camm AJ, Garrett CJ. Adenosine and supraventricular tachycardia. New England Journal of Medicine 325: 1621–1629, 1991.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Campbell RWF. Drug therapy: mexiletine. New England Journal of Medicine 316: 29–34, 1987.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Campbell TJ. Kinetics of onset of rate-dependent effects of Class 1 antiarrhythmic drugs are important in determining their effects on refractoriness in guinea-pig ventricle, and provide a theoretical basis for their subclassification. Cardiovascular Research 17: 344–352, 1983.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cascio WE, Foster JR, Buchanan JW, Johnson TA, Gettes, LS. Enhancement of procainamide-induced rate-dependent conduction slowing by elevated myocardial extracellular potassium concentration in vivo. Circulation 76: 1380–1387, 1987.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cascio WE, Woelfel AK, Knisley SB, Foster JR, Gettes LS. Amiodarone induced rate-related QRS widening during myocardial ischemia in man. Journal of the American College of Cardiology 15: 235A, 1990a.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cascio WE, Woelfel A, Knisley SB, Buchanan JW, Foster JR, et al. Use dependence of amiodarone during the sinus tachycardia of exercise in coronary artery disease. American Journal of Cardiology 61: 1042–1045, 1988.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cascio WE, Yan Gan-Xin, Kleber AG. Passive electrical properties, mechanical activity and extracellular potassium in arterially perfused and ischemic rabbit ventricular muscle: effects of calcium entry blockade or hypocalcemia. Circulation Research 66: 1461–1473, 1990b.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • CAST Investigators. Preliminary report: effect of encainide and flecainide on mortality in a randomized trial of arrhythmia suppression after myocardial infarction. New England Journal of Medicine 321: 406–412, 1989.

    Google Scholar 

  • Castellanos A, Salhanick L. Electrocardiographic patterns of procaine amide cardiotoxicity. American Journal of Medical Sciences 253: 52–60, 1967.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chen C, Gettes LS, Katzung BG. Effect of Lidocaine and quinidine on steady-state characteristics and recovery kinetics of (dV/dt)max in guinea pig ventricular myocardium. Circulation Research 37: 20–29, 1975.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Chen CM, Gettes LS. Combined effects of rate, membrane, potential, and drugs on maximum rate of rise (Vmax) of action potential upstroke of guinea pig papillary muscle. Circulation Research 38: 464–469, 1976.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Chen CM, Gettes LS. Effects of verapamil on the rapid Na channel-dependent action potentials of K+-depolarized ventricular fibers. Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics 209: 415–421, 1979.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Chen TO, Sutton GC, Swisher WP, Sutton DC. Effect of quinidine on the ventricular complex of the electrocardiogram with special reference to the duration of the QT interval. American Heart Journal 51: 417–444, 1956.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chou TC. Electrocardiography in clinical practice, 3rd ed., pp. 459–485, Grune & Stratton, Orlando, 1991.

    Google Scholar 

  • Clemo HF, Bellardinelli L. Effect of adenosine on atrioventricular conduction. I: site and characterization of adenosine action in the guinea pig atrioventricular node. Circulation Research 59: 427–436, 1986.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Colatsky TJ, Tourner CH, Starmer CF. Channel specificity in antiarrhythmic drug action. Mechanism of potassium channel block and its role suppressing and aggravating cardiac arrhythmias. Circulation 82: 2235–2242, 1990.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Connolly MJ, Astridge PS, White EG, Morley CA, Cowan JC. Torsades de pointes, ventricular tachycardia and terodiline. Lancet 338: 344–345, 1991.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Courtney KR. Quantifying antiarrhythmic drug blocking during action potentials in guinea pig papillary muscle. Journal of Molecular and Cellular Cardiology 15: 749–757, 1983.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Craft TM. Torsade de pointes after astemizole overdose. British Medical Journal 292: 660, 1986.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Crane GE. Cardiac toxicity and psychotropic drugs. Diseases of the Nervous System 31: 534–539, 1970.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cranefield PF, Aronson RS. Torsade de pointes and early after-depolarizations. Cardiovascular Drugs and Therapy 5: 531–538, 1991.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cregler LL. Cocaine: The newest risk factor for cardiovascular disease. Clinical Cardiology 14: 449–456, 1991.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Curtis AB, Ellenbogen, K, Wharton JM, Strauss HC. The frequency-dependent effects of verapamil on antegrade refractory periods and conduction in the atrioventricular node in man. Journal of Cardiovascular Electrophysiology 3: 21–33, 1992.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dauchot P, Gravenstein JS. Effects of atropine on the electrocardiogram in different age groups. Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics 12: 274–280, 1971.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • DeMello WC. Modulation of junctional permeability. Federation Proceedings 43: 2692–2696, 1984.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Dessertenne F. La tachycardia ventriculaire a deux foyers opposes variables. Archives Mal Coeur 59: 263–272, 1966.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • DiMarco JP, Sellars TD, Berne RM, West GA, Belardinelli L. Adenosine: electrophysiologic effects and therapeutic use for terminating paroxysmal supraventricular tachycardia. Circulation 68: 1254–1263, 1983.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • DiMarco JP, Sellers TD, Lerman BB, Greenberg, ML, Berne RM, et al. Diagnostic and therapeutic use of adenosine in patients with supraventricular tachyarrhythmias. Journal of the American College of Cardiology 6: 417–425, 1985.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Daoud FS, Surawicz B, Gettes LS. Effect of isoproterenol on the abnormal T wave. American Journal of Cardiology 30: 810–819, 1972.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Echt DS, Liebson PR, Mitchell LB, and the CAST investigators. Mortality and morbidity in patients receiving encainide, flecainide or placebo. The Cardiac Arrhythmia Suppression Trial. New England Journal of Medicine 324: 781–788, 1991.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Edvardsson N, Olsson SB. Effects of acute and chronic beta-receptor blockade on ventricular repolarization in man. British Heart Journal 45: 628–636, 1981.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ellenbogen KA, German LD, O’Callaghan WG, Colanita PG, Marchese AC, et al. Frequency-dependent effects of verapamil on atrioventricular nodal conduction in man. Circulation 72: 344–352, 1985.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Evans W. The electrocardiogram of alcoholic cardiomyopathy. British Heart Journal 21: 445–456, 1959.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Falk RH. Proarrhythmia in patients treated for atrial fibrillation or flutter. Annals of Internal Medicine 117: 141–150, 1992.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Faniel R, Schoenfeld PL. Efficacy of i.v. amiodarone in converting rapid atrial fibrillation and flutter to sinus rhythm in intensive care patients. European Heart Journal 5: 180, 1983.

    Google Scholar 

  • Faulds D, Chrisp P, Buckley MMT. Adenosine: an evaluation of its use in cardiac diagnostic procedures, and in the treatment of paroxysmal supraventricular tachycardia. Drugs 41: 596–624, 1991.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ferner GR, Saunders JH, Mendez C. A cellular mechanism for the generation of ventricular arrhythmias by acetylstrophanthidin. Circulation Research 32: 600–609, 1973.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fisch C. Effects of drugs on the ECG. In Braunwald (Ed.) Heart disease: a textbook of cardiovascular medicine, 4th ed., pp. 151–155, W.B. Saunders, Philadelphia, 1991.

    Google Scholar 

  • Follmer CH, Aomine M, Yeh JZ, Singer DH. Amiodarone-induced block of sodium current in isolated cardiac cells. Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics 243: 187–194, 1987.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fowler NO, McCall D, Chou TC, Holmes JC, Hanenson IB. Electrocardiographic changes and cardiac arrhythmias in patients receiving psychotropic drugs. American Journal of Cardiology 37: 223–230, 1976.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fozzard HA, Arnsdorf MF. Cardiac electrophysiology. In Fozzard et al. (Eds) The heart and cardiovascular system, 2nd ed., pp. 63–98, Raven Press, New York, 1991.

    Google Scholar 

  • Freedman RA, Anderson KP, Green LS, Mason JW. Effect of erythromycin on ventricular arrhythmias and ventricular repolarization in idiopathic long QT syndrome. American Journal of Cardiology 59: 168–169, 1987.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Funck-Brentano C, Kroemer HK, Lee JT, Roden DM. Drug therapy: propafenone. New England Journal of Medicine 322: 518–525, 1990.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Garvey HL. Mechanism of action of verapamil on the sinus and AV nodes. European Journal of Pharmacology 8: 159–166, 1969.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gettes LS. On the classification of antiarrhythmic drugs. Modern concepts in cardiovascular disease 48: 13–18, 1979.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gettes LS. Physiology and pharmacology of antiarrhythmic drugs. Hospital Practice 16: 89–101, 1981.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gettes LS. Electrolyte abnormalities underlying lethal and ventricular arrhythmias. Circulation 85 (suppl. 1): I–70–I–76, 1992.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gettes LS, Surawicz B, Shiue JCS. Effect of high K, low K, and quinidine on QRS duration and ventricular action potential. American Journal of Physiology 203: 1135–1140, 1962.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gettes LS, Cascio WE. Effect of acute ischemia on cardiac electrophysiology. In Fozzard et al. (Eds) Heart and cardiovascular system, pp. 2021–2054, Raven Press, New York, 1992.

    Google Scholar 

  • Giardina EGV, Bigger JT, Glassman AH, Perel JM, Kantor SJ. The electrocardiographic and antiarrhythmic effects of imipramine hydrochloride at therapeutic plasma concentrations. Circulation 60: 1045–1052, 1979.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gohn DC, Simmons TW. Polymorphic ventricular tachycardia (torsade de pointes) associated with the use of probucol. New England Journal of Medicine 326: 1435–1436, 1992.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Goldenberg AM, Wexler LF. Quinine overdose: review of toxicity and treatment. Clinical Cardiology 11: 716–718, 1988.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Goldsmith S, From AH1. Arsenic-induced atypical ventricular tachycardia. New England Journal of Medicine 303: 1096–1098, 1980.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gomes JA, Kang PS, El-Sherif N. Effects of digitalis on the human sick sinus node after pharmacologic autonomic blockade. American Journal of Cardiology 48: 783–788, 1981.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gonzalez A, Sager PT, Akil B, Rahimtoola SH, Bhandari AK. Pentamidine-induced torsade de pointes. American Heart Journal 122: 1489–1492, 1991.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Goodman DJ, Rossen RM, Cannom DS, Rider AK, Harrison DC. Effects of digoxin on atrio-ventricular conduction. Studies in patients with and without cardiac autonomic innervation. Circulation 51: 251–256, 1975.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Grant AO, Starmer FC, Strauss HC. Antiarrhythmic drug action: blockade of the inward sodium current. Circulation Research 55: 427–439, 1984.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Grant AO, Trantham JL, Brown KK, Strauss HC. PH-dependent effects of quinidine on the kinetics of dv/dtmax in guinea pig ventricular myocardium. Circulation Research 50: 210–217, 1982.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gravenstein JS, Ariet M, Thornby JI. Atropine on the electrocardiogram. Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics 10: 660–666, 1969.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Greene HL, Graham EL, Werner JA. Toxic and therapeutic effects of amiodarone in the treatment of cardiac arrhythmias. Journal of the American College of Cardiology 2: 1114–1128, 1983.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gulamhusein S, Ko P, Klein GJ. Ventricular fibrillation following verapamil in the Wolff-Parkinson-White Syndrome. American Heart Journal 106: 145–147, 1983.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hageman GR, Urthaler F, Isobe JH, James TN. Chronotropic and dromotropic effects of histamine on the canine heart. Chest 75: 597–604, 1979.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hale SL, Lehmann MH, Kloner RA. Electrocardiographic abnormalities after acute administration of cocaine in the rat. American Journal of Cardiology 63: 1529–1530, 1989.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hall D. Charocopos F, Froer KL, Rudolph W. ECG changes during long-term minoxidil therapy for severe hypertension. Archives of Internal Medicine 139: 790–794, 1979.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Harper JR, Gettes LS. A reexamination of antiarrhythmic drug classification. Cardiovascular Reviews and Reports 9: 59–65, 1988.

    Google Scholar 

  • Harrison DC, Winkle RA, Sami M, Mason JW. Encainide: a new and potent antiarrhythmic agent. In Harrison (Ed.) Cardiac arrhythmias: a decade of progress, pp. 315–330, G.K. Hall, Boston, 1981.

    Google Scholar 

  • Harrison DC. Antiarrhythmic drug classification: new science and practical applications. American Journal of Cardiology 56: 185–187, 1985.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hille B. Local anesthetics hydrophilic and hydrophobic pathways for the drug-receptor reaction. Journal of General Physiology 69: 497–515, 1977.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hirshfeld JW. Low-osmolality contrast agents-who needs them? New England Journal of Medicine 326: 182–184, 1992.

    Google Scholar 

  • Henderson IC, Frei E. Adriamycin and the heart. New England Journal of Medicine 300: 310–312, 1979.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hoffman BF, Rosen MR, Wit AL. Electrophysiology and pharmacology of cardiac arrhythmias. VII. Cardiac effects of quinidine and procaine amide. American Heart Journal. Part A 89: 804–808; Part B 90: 117–122, 1975.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hoffman BF, Bigger Jr JT. Digitalis and allied cardiac glycosides. In Gilman et al. (Eds) Goodman and Gilman’s the pharmacological basis of therapeutics, pp. 814–839, Pergamon Press, New York, 1990.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hondeghem LM, Katzung BG. Time- and voltage-dependent interactions of antiarrhythmic drugs with cardiac sodium channels. Biochimica et Biophysica Acta 472: 373–398, 1977.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hondeghem LM. Antiarrhythmic agents: modulated receptor applications. Circulation 75: 514–520, 1987.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hondeghem LM, Katzung BG. Antiarrhythmic agents: the modulated receptor mechanism of action of sodium and calcium channel blocking drugs. Annual Review of Pharmacological Toxicology 24: 387–396, 1984.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Huston JR, Bell, GE. The effect of thioridazine hydrochloride and chlorpromazine on the electrocardiogram. Journal of the American Medical Association 198: 134–138, 1966.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ikeda N, Singh BN, Davis LD, Hauswirth O. Effects of flecainide on the electrophysiologic properties of isolated canine and rabbit myocardial fibers. Journal of the American College of Cardiology 5: 303–310, 1985.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ikeda N, Nademanee K, Kannan R, Singh BH. Electrophysiologic effects of amiodarone: experimental and clinical observation relative to serum and tissue drug concentrations. American Heart Journal 108: 890, 1984.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Isner JM, Choksi SK. Cardiovascular complications of cocaine. Current Problems in Cardiology 16: 91–123, 1991.

    Google Scholar 

  • Isner JM, Estes M, Thompson PD, Costanzo-Nordin MR, Subramanian R, et al. Acute cardiac events temporally related to cocaine use. New England Journal of Medicine 315: 1438–1443, 1986.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jacob AI, Hope RR. Prolongation of the QT interval in lithium toxicity. Journal of Electrocardiography 12: 117–119, 1979.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jefferys DB, Vale JA. Cimetidine and bradycardia. Lancet 1: 828, 1978.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • John TY, Wyse DG, Gillis AM, Duff HJ, Solylo MA, et al. Precordial QT interval dispersion as a marker of torsade de pointes: disparate effects of class Ia antiarrhythmic drugs and amiodarone. Circulation 86: 1376–1382, 1992.

    Google Scholar 

  • Johnson WS, Miller DR. Ranitidine and bradycardia. Annals of Internal Medicine 3: 493, 1988.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jorens PG, Van Den Heuvel PA, Ranquin REF, Van Den Branden FA, Parizel GA. Amiodarone induced torsade de pointes: report of three cases and review of literature. Acta Cardiologica 5: 411, 1989.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kadish A, Morady F. The use of intravenous amiodarone in the acute therapy of life-threatening tachyarrhythmias. Progress in Cardiovascular Diseases 31: 281–294, 1989.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Karsarskis EJ, Kuo CS, Berger R, Nelson KR. Carbamazepineinduced cardiac dysfunction. Characterization of two distinct clinical syndromes. Archives of Internal Medicine 152: 186–191, 1992.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kay GN, Plumb VJ, Arciniegas JG, Henthorn RW, Waldo AL. Torsade de pointes: the long-short initiating sequence and other clinical features: observations in 32 patients. Journal of the American College of Cardiology 2: 806–817, 1983.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kemper AJ, Dunlap R, Pietro DA. Thioridizine-induced torsade de pointes. Successful therapy with isoproterenol. Journal of the American Medical Association 249: 2931–2934, 1983.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kenaya S, Katzung BG. Effects of diltiazem on transmembrane potential and current of right ventricular papillary muscle of ferrets. Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics 228: 245–251, 1984.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kent L, Kingsland RC. Effects of emetine hydrochloride on the electrocardiogram in man. American Heart Journal 39: 576–587, 1950.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kibler LE, Gazes PC. Effect of clonidine on atrioventricular conduction. Journal of the American Medical Association 238: 1930–1932, 1977.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kleber AG, Riegger CB, Janse MJ. Electrical uncoupling and increase of extracellular resistance after induction of ischemia in isolated, arterially perfused rabbit papillary muscle. Circulation Research 61: 271–279, 1987.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Klein L. QT-interval prolongation produced by probucol. Archives of Internal Medicine 141: 1102–1103, 1981.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Klein GJ, Bashore TM, Sellers TD, Pritchett EL, Smith WM, et al. Ventricular fibrillation in the Wolff-Parkinson-White Syndrome. New England Journal of Medicine 301: 1080–1085, 1979.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Koch-Weser J. Drug therapy: bretylium. New England Journal of Medicine 300: 473–477, 1979.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Langou RA, Van Dyke C, Tahan SR, Cohen LS. Cardiovascular manifestations of tricyclic antidepressant overdose. American Heart Journal 100: 458–464, 1980.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Langtry HD, McTavish D. Terodiline: a review of its pharmacological properties and use in the treatment of urinary incontinence. Drugs 40: 748–761, 1990.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lazzara R, Hope RR, El-Sherif N, Scherlag BJ. Effects of lidocaine on hypoxic and ischemic cardiac cells. American Journal of Cardiology 41: 872–879, 1978.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lee KS, Tsien RW. Mechanism of calcium channel blockade by verapamil, D600, diltiazem and nitrendipine in single dialysed heart cells. Nature 302: 790–794, 1983.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lerman BB, Belardinelli L. Cardiac electrophysiology of adenosine. Circulation 83: 1499–1509, 1991.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lopez JA, Harold JG, Rosenthal MG, Oseran DS, Schapira JN, et al. QT prolongation and torsade de pointes after administration of trimethoprim sulfamethoxazole. American Journal of Cardiology 59: 376–377, 1987.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Marshall JB, Forker AD. Cardiovascular effects of tricyclic anti-depressant drugs: therapeutic usage, overdose, and management of complications. American Heart Journal 103: 401–414, 1982.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mason JW. Basic and clinical cardiac electrophysiology of encainide. American Journal of Cardiology 58: 18c–24c, 1986.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mason JW. Drug therapy: amiodarone. New England Journal of Medicine 316: 455–466, 1987.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mason JW, Hondeghem LM, Katzung BG. Block of inactivated sodium channels and the depolarization-induced automaticity in guinea pig papillary muscle by amiodarone. Circulation Research 55: 277–285, 1984.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mattioni TA, Zheuthlin TA, Sarmiento JJ, Parker M, Lescn M, et al. Amiodarone in patients with previous drug-mediated Torsade de Pointes: long term safety and efficacy. Annals of Internal Medicine 111: 574–580, 1989.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • McComb JM, Campbell NPS, Cleland J. Recurrent ventricular tachycardia associated with QT prolongation after mitral valve replacement and its association with intravenous administration of erythromycin. American Journal of Cardiology 54: 922–923, 1984.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • McGovern B, Garan H, Ruskin JN. Precipitation of cardiac arrest by verapamil in patients with Wolff-Parkinson-White Syndrome. Annals of Internal Medicine 104: 791–794, 1986.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mehta D, Warwick GL, Goldsberg MJ. QT prolongation after ampicillin anaphylaxis. British Heart Journal 55: 308–310, 1986.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mitchell JE, Mackenzie TB. Cardiac effects of lithium therapy in man. A review. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 43: 47–51, 1982.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mitchell LB, Schroeder JS, Mason JW. Comparative clinical electrophysiologic effects of diltiazem, verapamil, and nifedipine: a review. American Journal of Cardiology 49: 629–635, 1982.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Monahan BP, Ferguson CL, Killeavy ES, Lloyd BK, Troy J, et al. Torsade de pointes occurring in association with terfenadine use. Journal of the American Medical Association 264: 2788–2790, 1990.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Morady F, Scheinman MM, Shen E, Shapiro W, Sung RJ, et al. Intravenous amiodarone in the acute treatment of recurrent symptomatic ventricular tachycardia. American Journal of Cardiology 51: 156–159, 1983.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Morady F, DiCarlo LA, Baerman JM, Krol RB. Rate-dependent effects of intravenous lidocaine, procainamide and amiodarone on intraventricular conduction. Journal of the American College of Cardiology 6: 179–185, 1985.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Morady F, DiCarlo LA, Krol RB, Baerman FM, deBuitleir M. Acute and chronic effects of amiodarone on ventricular refractoriness, intraventricular conduction and ventricular tachycardia induction. Journal of the American College of Cardiology 7: 148–157, 1986.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nakagawa S, Yamamoto Y, Koiwaya Y. Ventricular tachycardia induced by clonidine withdrawal. British Heart Journal 53: 654–658, 1985.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nattel S, Ranger S, Talajic M, Lemery R, Roy D. Erythromycin-induced long QT syndrome: concordance with quinidine and underlying cellular electrophysiologic mechanism. American Journal of Medicine 89: 235–238, 1990.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nattel S, Jing W. Rate-dependent changes in intraventricular conduction produced by procainamide in anesthetized dogs. Circulation Research 65: 1485–1498, 1989.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nattel S, Talajic M, Quantz M, DeRoode M. Frequency-dependent effects of amiodarone on atrioventricular nodal function and slow channel action potentials: evidence for calcium channel-blocking activity. Circulation 76: 442–449, 1987.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Niemann JT, Bessen HA, Rothstein RJ, Laks MM. Electrocardiographic criteria for tricyclic antidepressant cardiotoxicity. American Journal of Cardiology 57: 1154–1159, 1986.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nishimura M, Follmer CH, Singer DH. Amiodarone blocks calcium current in single guinea pig ventricular myocytes. Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics 251: 650–659, 1989.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nguyen PT, Scheinman MM, Seger J. Polymorphous ventricular tachycardia: clinical characterization, therapy, and the QT interval. Circulation 74: 340–349, 1986.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Opie LH (Ed.). Drugs for the heart, 3rd ed., W.B. Saunders, Philadelphia, 1991.

    Google Scholar 

  • Perrot B, Clozel JP, Terrier de la Chaise A, Cherrier F, Faivre G. Electrophysiologic effects of intravenous prostacyclin in man. European Heart Journal 5: 883–889, 1984.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Petsas AA, Kotler MN. Electrocardiographic changes associated with penicillin anaphylaxis. Chest 64: 66–69, 1973.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pfeffer MA, Pfeffer JM. Reversing cardiac hypertrophy in hypertension. New England Journal of Medicine 322: 1388–1390, 1990.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Piette JC, Guillevin L, Chapelon C, Wechsler B, Bietry O, et al. Chloroquine cardiotoxicity. New England Journal of Medicine 317: 710–711, 1987.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Poblette PF, Kyle MC, Pipberger HV, Freis ED. Effect of treatment on morbidity in hypertension. Veterans Administration cooperative study on antihypertensive agents: effects on the electrocardiogram. Circulation 48: 481–490, 1973.

    Google Scholar 

  • Podrid PJ. New antiarrhythmic drugs. Learning Center Highlights 5: 11–15, 1989.

    Google Scholar 

  • Podrid PJ, Lampbert S, Graboys TB, Blatt CM, Lown B. Aggravation of arrhythmia by antiarrhythmic drugs — incidence and predictors. American Journal of Cardiology 59: 38E–44E, 1987.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Podrid PJ, Schoenberger A, Lown B. Congestive heart failure caused by oral disopyramide. New England Journal of Medicine 302: 614–617, 1980.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Podrid PJ. Aggravation of arrhythmia: a complication of antiarrhythmic drug therapy. European Heart Journal 10 (suppl. E): 66–72, 1989.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Przywara DA, Dambauch GE. Direct actions of cocaine on cardiac cellular electrical activity. Circulation Research 65: 185–192, 1989.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Raeder EA, Podrid PJ, Lown B. Side effects and complications of amiodarone therapy. American Heart Journal 109: 975–983, 1985.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ranger S, Talajic M, Lemery R, Roy D, Nattel S. Amplification of flecainide-induced ventricular conduction slowing by exercise: a potentially significant clinical consequence of use-dependent sodium channel blockade. Circulation 79: 1000–1006, 1989.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ranger S, Talajic M, Lemery R, Roy D, Villemaire C, Nattel S. Kinetics of use-dependent ventricular conduction slowing by antiarrhythmic drugs in humans. Circulation 83: 1987–1994, 1991.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Reding P, Devroede C, Barbier P. Bradycardia after cimetidine. Lancet 2: 1277, 1977.

    Google Scholar 

  • Regan TJ, Khan MI, Oldewurtel HA, Passannante AJ. Antibiotic effect on myocardial K+ transport and the production of ventricular tachycardia. Journal of Clinical Investigation 48: 68A, 1969.

    Google Scholar 

  • Reiter MJ, Higgins SL, Payne AG, Mann DE. Effects of quinidine versus procainamide on the QT interval. American Journal of Cardiology 58: 512–516, 1986.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Reuter H. Effects of neurotransmitters on the slow inward current. In Zipes et al. (Eds) The slow inward current and cardiac arrhythmias, pp. 205–219, Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, The Hague, 1980.

    Google Scholar 

  • Roden DM, Reele SB, Higgins SB, Mayol RF, Gammans RE, et al. Total suppression of ventricular arrhythmias by encainide. Pharmacokinetic and electrocardiographic characteristics. New England Journal of Medicine 302: 877–882, 1980.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Roden DM, Woosley RL. Drug therapy: tocainide. New England Journal of Medicine 315: 41–45, 1986.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Roden DM, Woosley RL, Primm RK. Incidence and clinical features of the quinidine-associated long QT syndrome: implications for patient care. American Heart Journal 111: 1088–1093, 1986.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rosen MR, Hoffman BF, Wit AL. Electrophysiology and pharmacology of cardiac arrhythmias. V. Cardiac arrhythmic effects of Lidocaine. American Heart Journal 89: 526–536, 1975a.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rosen MR, Wit AL, Hoffman BF. Electrophysiology and pharmacology of cardiac arrhythmias. I. Cellular electrophysiology of the mammalian heart. American Heart Journal 88: 380–385, 1974.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rosen MR, Wit AL, Hoffman BF. Electrophysiology and pharmacology of cardiac arrhythmias. IV. Cardiac antiarrhythmic and toxic effects of digitalis. American Heart Journal 89: 391–399, 1975b.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rosen MR, Wit AL, Hoffman BF. Electrophysiology and pharmacology of cardiac arrhythmias. VI. Cardiac effects of verapamil. American Heart Journal 89: 665–673, 1975c.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rosenshtraukh LV, Anyukhovshy EP, Nesterenko VV, Undrovinas AI, Shugeshev KK, et al. Electrophysiologic effects of moricizine HC1. American Journal of Cardiology 60: 27F–34F, 1987.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Roth A, Kaluski E, Feiner S, Heller K, Laniado S. Clonidine for patients with rapid atrial fibrillation. Annals of Internal Medicine 116: 388–390, 1992.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ruskin A. Pitressin test of coronary insufficiency. American Heart Journal 34: 569–579, 1949.

    Google Scholar 

  • Saksena S, Rothbart ST, Shah, Y, Cappello G. Clinical efficacy and electropharmacology of continuous intravenous amiodarone infusion and chronic oral amiodarone in refractory ventricular tachycardia. American Journal of Cardiology 54: 347–352, 1984.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sanghvi LM, Mathur BB. Electrocardiogram after chloroquine and emetine. Circulation 32: 281–289, 1965.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sartori M, Pratt CM, Young JB. Torsade de pointe. Malignant cardiac arrhythmia induced by amantadine poisoning. American Journal of Medicine 77: 388–391, 1984.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Schachne JS, Roberts BH, Thompson PD. Coronary artery spasm and myocardial infarction associated with cocaine use. New England Journal of Medicine 310: 1665–1666, 1984.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Schaal SF, Sugimoto T, Wallace AG, Sealy WC. Effect of digitalis on the functional refractory period of the AV node: studies in awake dogs with and without cardiac denervation. Cardiovascular Research 4: 356–359, 1968.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schwartz AB, Janzen D, Jones RT. Electrophysiologic effects of cocaine on the canine ventricle. Journal of Cardiovascular Pharmacology 13: 253–257, 1989.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Shaw RG, Mashford ML, Desmond PV. Cardiac arrest after intravenous injection of cimetidine. Medical Journal of Australia 2: 629–630, 1980.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sherief HT, Carpentier RG. Electrophysiological mechanisms of cocaine-induced cardiac arrest. Journal of Electrocardiography 24: 247–255, 1991.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Simons FER, Kesselman MS, Giddins NG, Pelech AN, Simons KJ. Astemizole-induced torsade de pointes. Lancet 1: 624, 1988.

    Google Scholar 

  • Simpson Jr RJ, Foster JR, Benge C, Baker S, Gettes LS. Safety of multiple bolus loading of intravenous disopyramide. American Heart Journal 106: 505–508, 1983.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Simpson Jr RJ, Foster JR, Woelfel AK, Gettes LS. Management of atrial fibrillation and flutter: a reappraisal of digitalis therapy. Postgraduate Medicine 79: 241–253, 1986.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Singh BN, Nademanee K. Sotolol: a beta blocker with unique antiarrhythmic properties. American Heart Journal 114: 121–139, 1987.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Singh BN, Vaughan Williams EM. The effect of amiodarone, a new anti-anginal drug, on cardiac muscles. British Journal of Pharmacology 39: 657–667, 1970.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Smith TW. Digitalis: mechanisms of action and clinical use. New England Journal of Medicine 318: 358–365, 1988.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Snook J, Boothman-Burrell D, Watkins J, Colin-Jones D. Torsade de pointes ventricular tachycardia associated with astemizone overdose. British Journal of Clinical Practice 42: 257–259, 1988.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Somberg JC, Tepper D. Flecainide: a new antiarrhythmic agent. American Heart Journal 112: 800–813, 1986.

    Google Scholar 

  • Spedding M, Paoletti R. Classification of calcium channels and calcium antagonists: progress report. Cardiovascular Drugs and Therapy 6: 35–39, 1992.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Starmer CF, Grant AO, Strauss HC. Mechanisms of use-dependent block of sodium channels in excitable membranes by local anesthetics. Biophysical Journal 46: 15–27, 1984.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Steiner C, Wit AL, Weiss MB, Damato AN. The antiarrhythmic actions of carbamazepine (tegretol). Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics 173: 323–335, 1970.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Surawicz B. Electrophysiologic substrate of torsade de pointes: dispersion of repolarization or early afterdepolarizations? Journal of the American College of Cardiology 14: 172–184, 1989a.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Surawicz B. Is hypomagnesemia or magnesium deficiency arrhythmogenic? Journal of the American College of Cardiology 14: 1093–1096, 1989b.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Surawicz B, Knoebel SB. Long QT: good, bad, or indifferent. Journal of the American College of Cardiology 4: 398–413, 1984.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Surawicz B, Kua CS, Varro A. Dispersion of refractoriness in experimental and clinical arrhythmias. In Fisch & Surawicz (Eds) Cardiac electrophysiology and arrhythmias, pp. 108–120, El-sevier, New York, 1991.

    Google Scholar 

  • Surawicz B, Lasseter KC. Effects of drugs on the electrocardiogram. Progress in Cardiovascular Diseases 13: 26–55, 1970.

    Google Scholar 

  • Talajic M, DeRoode MR, Nattel S. Comparative electrophysiologic effects of intravenous amiodarone and desethylamiodarone in dogs: evidence for clinically relevant activity of the metabolite. Circulation 75: 265–271, 1987.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Talajic M, Papadatos D, Villemaire C, Nayebpour M, Nattel S. Antiarrhythmic actions of diltiazem during experimental atrioventricular reentrant tachycardias: importance of use-dependent calcium channel-blocking properties. Circulation 81: 334–342, 1990.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Talajic M, Lemery R, Roy D, Villemaire C, Cartier R, et al. Ratedependent effects of diltiazem on human atrioventricular nodal properties. Circulation 86: 870–877, 1992.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Tanner LA, Arrowsmith JB. Bradycardia and H2 antagonists. Annals of Internal Medicine 109: 434–435, 1988.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Teichman SL, Waspe LE, Matos JA, Kim SG, Fisher JD. Bethanidine sulfate: efficacy in prevention of ventricular tachyarrhythmias during programmed stimulation. Report of a multicenter study of 56 patients. Journal of the American College of Cardiology 6: 510–517, 1985.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Tilkian AG, Schroeder JS, Kao JJ, Hultgren HN. The cardiovascular effects of lithium in man. A review of the literature. American Journal of Medicine 61: 665–670, 1976.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Torres V, Tepper D, Flowers D, Wynn J, Lam S, et al. QT prolongation and the antiarrhythmic efficacy of amiodarone. Journal of the American College of Cardiology 7: 142–147, 1986.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Troendle G, Gueriguian J, Sobel S, Johnson M. Probucol and the QT interval. Lancet 1: 1179, 1982.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Vanerio G, Maloney JD. Moricizine: pharmacodynamic, pharmacokinetic, and therapeutic profile of a new antiarrhythmic. Cleveland Clinic Journal of Medicine 59: 79–86, 1992.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Varro A, Nakaya Y, Elharrar V, Surawicz B. Use-dependent effects of amiodarone on Vmax in cardiac Purkinje and ventricular muscle fibers. European Journal of Pharmacology 112: 419–422, 1985a.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Varro A, Elharrar V, Surawicz B. Frequency-dependent effects of several class 1 antiarrhythmic drugs on Vmax of action potential upstroke in canine cardiac Purkinje fibers. Journal of Cardiovascular Pharmacology 7: 482–492, 1985b.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Varro A, Nakaya Y, Elharrar V, Surawicz B. The effects of amiodarone on repolarization and refractoriness of cardiac fibers. European Journal of Pharmacology 154: 11–18, 1988.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Vaughan-Williams EM. A classification of antiarrhythmic actions reassessed after a decade of new drugs. Journal of Clinical Pharmacology 24: 129–147, 1984.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Vaughn-Williams EM. Classification of antiarrhythmic drugs. In Sandoe et al. (Eds) Symposium on cardiac arrhythmias, pp. 449–472, AB Astra; Sodertalje, Sweden, 1970.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vaughan-Williams EMV. Significance of classifying antiarrhythmic actions since the cardiac arrhythmia suppression trial. Journal of Clinical Pharmacology 31: 123–135, 1991.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Veltri EP, Reid PR, Platia EV, Grifith LSC. Results of late programmed electrical stimulation and long-term electrophysiologic effects of amiodarone therapy in patients with refractory ventricular tachycardia. American Journal of Cardiology 55: 375–379, 1985.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Warrington SJ, Smith PR, O’Grady J. Noninvasive assessment of the cardiovascular effects of prostacyclin (PG12) in man. European Journal of Cardiology 12: 73–80, 1980.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Weidmann S. Effects of calcium ions and local anesthetics on electrical properties of Purkinje fibers. Journal of Physiology 129: 568–582, 1955.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Weinberg SL. The electrocardiogram in acute arsenic poisoning. American Heart Journal 60: 971–975, 1960.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Weiner I, Rubin DA, Martinez E, Postman J, Herman MV. QT prolongation and paroxysmal ventricular tachycardia occurring during fever following trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole. Mount Sinai Journal of Medicine 48: 53–55, 1981.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wenstone R, Bell M, Mostafa SM. Fatal adult respiratory distress syndrome after quinine overdose. Lancet 1: 1143–1144, 1989.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wharton JM, Demopoles PA, Goldschlager N. Torsades de pointes during administration of pentamidine isothionate. American Journal of Medicine 83: 571–576, 1987.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wigle ED, Sasson Z, Henderson MA, Ruddy TD, Fulop J, et al. Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. The importance of site and the extent of hypertrophy. A review. Progress in Cardiovascular Diseases 28: 1–83, 1985.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Williams ML, Woelfel A, Cascio W, Simpson RJ, Gettes LS, et al. Intravenous amiodarone during prolonged resuscitation from cardiac arrest. Annals of Internal Medicine 110: 839–842, 1989.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Williams PL, Krafcik JM, Potter BB, Hooper JH, Hearne MJ. Cardiac toxicity of clonidine. Chest 72: 784–785, 1977.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wit AL, Hoffman BF, Rosen MR. Electrophysiology and pharmacology of cardiac arrhythmias IX. Cardiac electrophysiologic effects of beta adrenergic receptor stimulation and blockade. American Heart Journal 90: 521–553, 665–675, 1975a.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wit AL, Rosen MR, Hoffman BF. Electrophysiology and pharmacology of cardiac arrhythmias VII. Cardiac effects of diphenylhydantoin B. American Heart Journal 90: 397–404, 1975b.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wolf GL, Hirshfield JW Jr. Changes in QTc interval induced with Renograf-76 and Hypaque-76 during coronary arteriography. Journal of the American College of Cardiology 1: 1489–1492, 1983.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Woosley RL, Wood AJJ, Roden DM. Drug therapy: encainide. New England Journal of Medicine 318: 1107–1115, 1988.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wu CF. Sudhaker M, Jaferi G, Ahmed SS, Regan TJ. Preclinical cardiomyopathy in chronic alcoholics: a sex difference. American Heart Journal 91: 281–286, 1976.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Yabek SM, Kato R, Singh BN. Effects of amiodarone and its metabolite desthylamiodarone on the electrophysiologic properties of isolated cardiac muscle. Journal of Cardiovascular Pharmacology 8: 197–204, 1986.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Zipes DP, Jalife J (Eds). Cardiac electrophysiology: from cell to bedside, W.B. Saunders, Philadelphia, 1991.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zipes DP. Proarrhythmic effects of antiarrhythmic drugs. American Journal of Cardiology 59: 26E–31E, 1987.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Zuckerman LS, Friehling TD, Wolf NM, Meister SG, Nahass G, et al. Effect of calcium-binding additives on ventricular fibrillation and repolarization changes during coronary angio-graphy. Journal of the American College of Cardiology 10: 1249–1253, 1987.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Medicine, Division of Cardiology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, 27599-7075, USA

    John D. Symanski &  Leonard S. Gettes

Authors
  1. John D. Symanski
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Leonard S. Gettes
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Symanski, J.D., Gettes, L.S. Drug Effects on the Electrocardiogram. Drugs 46, 219–248 (1993). https://doi.org/10.2165/00003495-199346020-00002

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.2165/00003495-199346020-00002

Keywords

Search

Navigation