Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Drug-Induced Disorders of Glucose Metabolism

Mechanisms and Management

  • Review Article
  • Pharmacoepidemiology
  • Published:
Drug Safety Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Summary

Glucose homeostasis is maintained by a balance between the release and action of insulin, and the counterregulatory responses mediated principally by glucagon, catecholamines, growth hormone and cortisol. Hence, the effects of a drug on glucose metabolism may be mediated by any of these agents singly or in combination. Host factors, such as inherent glucoregulatory mechanisms, concurrent diseases, organ function and concomitant medications also increase the risk of drug-induced disturbances of glucose homeostasis in susceptible individuals. By far the most important agents causing hypoglycaemia are insulin and the sulphonylureas. Alcohol (ethanol), over-zealous glycaemic control, hypoglycaemic unawareness, defective counterregulation especially in insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (IDDM), and renal and liver impairment are all important predisposing factors. Although antihyperglycaemic agents such as metformin and α-glucosidase inhibitors do not cause hypoglycaemia alone, they may enhance the hypoglycaemic effects of potent hypoglycaemic agents such as insulin and sulphonylureas. On the other hand, the potential hypoglycaemic effects of ACE inhibitors, α-blockers, lipid-lowering agents and recombinant human insulin-like growth factor demonstrated in experimental settings, are of potential therapeutic interest.

Iatrogenic hypoglycaemia and intensive insulin treatment are associated with hypoglycaemic unawareness which may be obviated by meticulous avoidance of hypoglycaemia. Effective patient education remains an important preventive measure. Oral glucose is used to treat mild hypoglycaemic episodes while more severe episodes are treated by intravenous glucose or glucagon. Nasal glucagon and theophylline are other experimental measures to improve recovery from hypoglycaemia. In refractory hypoglycaemia due to hyperinsulinaemia such as during sulphonylurea overdosage or quinine treatment, the long-acting somatostatin, octreotide, may suppress insulin release and restore euglycaemia.

Diuretics, β-blockers, sympathomimetics, corticosteroids and sex hormones are commonly prescribed drugs which may have adverse effects on carbohydrate metabolism especially in patients with diabetes mellitus or those who are at risk of developing glucose intolerance. Pentamidine was frequently associated with dysglycaemia due to its pancreatic β-cell cytotoxic effects but is now used less often to treat Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia in immunosuppressed patients.

Despite the large number of anecdotal reports of drug-induced disturbances of glucose metabolism, many of the so-called adverse drug reactions were either idiosyncratic or coincidental. Nevertheless, they emphasise the complex nature of glucose homeostasis and its potential interactions with drugs, host factors and disease states. An understanding of these relationships may allow more critical interpretation of these clinical observations, better prediction of drug-induced adverse effects on carbohydrate metabolism and the implementation of more rational therapy. Hence, the hypoglycaemic effects of a drug may be turned to a therapeutic advantage in patients with glucose intolerance. Similarly, the hyperglycaemic effect of a drug may help to treat refractory hypoglycaemia.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  1. Howell SL. Regulation and mechanism of insulin secretion. In: Besser MG, Bodansky HJ, Cudworth AG, editors. Clinical diabetes: an illustrated text. Philadelphia: J B Lippincott, 1988:2.1–2.8

    Google Scholar 

  2. DeFronzo R. The triumvirate: β-cell, muscle, liver: a collusion responsible for NIDDM. Diabetes 1988; 37: 667–87

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  3. Taylor SI, Accili D, Imai Y. Insulin resistance or insulin deficiency. Which is the primary cause of NIDDM? Diabetes 1994; 43: 736–40

    Google Scholar 

  4. Rossetti L, Giaccari A, DeFronzo RA. Glucose toxicity. Diabetes Care 1990; 13: 610–30

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  5. Lager I. The insulin-antagonistic effect of the counterregulatory hormones. J Intern Med 1991; 229 Suppl. 2: 41–7

    Google Scholar 

  6. Cryer PE. Hypoglycemia: the limiting factor in the management of IDDM. Diabetes 1994; 43: 1378–89

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  7. Axelrod J, Reisine TD. Stress hormones: their interaction and regulation. Science 1984; 224: 452–9

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  8. Holmäng P, Björntorp P. The effects of cortisol on insulin sensitivity in muscle. Acta Physiol Scand 1992; 144: 425–31

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  9. Critchley JAJH, Ellis P, Henderson CG, et al. The role of the pituitary adrenocortical axis in reflex responses of the adrenal medulla. J Physiol 1982; 323: 533–41

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  10. Critchley JAJH, MacLean MR, Ungar A. Inhibitory regulation by co-released peptides of catecholamine secretion by the canine adrenal medulla. Br J Clin Pharmacol 1988; 93: 383–6

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  11. Froesch ER, Zenobi PD, Hussain M. Metabolic and therapeutic effects of insulin-like growth factor 1. Horm Res 1994; 42: 66–71

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  12. Seltzer HS. Drug-induced hypoglycemia: a review of 1418 cases. Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am 1989; 1989: 163–83

    Google Scholar 

  13. Arky RA. Hypoglycemia associated with liver disease and ethanol. Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am 1989; 18: 75–90

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  14. Arem R. Hypoglycemia associated with renal failure. Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am 1989; 18: 103–21

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  15. Diabetes Control and Complications Trial Research Group. The effect of intensive treatment of diabetes on the development and progression of long-term complications in insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. N Engl J Med 1993; 329: 977–86

    Google Scholar 

  16. Reichard P, Nilsson, Rosenqvist U. The effect of long-term intensified insulin treatment on the development of microvascular complications of diabetes mellitus. N Engl J Med 1993; 329: 304–9

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  17. Ohkubo Y, Kishikawa H, Araki E, et al. Intensive insulin therapy prevents the progression of diabetic microvascular complications in Japanese patients with NIDDM: a randomised prospective 6-year study. Diabetes Res Clin Pract 1995; 28: 103–17

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  18. DCCT Research Group. Epidemiology of severe hypoglycemia in the diabetes control and complications trial. Am J Med 1991; 90: 450–9

    Google Scholar 

  19. Cryer PE, Fisher JN, Shamoon H. Hypoglycaemia. Diabetes Care 1994; 17: 734–55

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  20. Hepburn DA, MacLeod KM, Pell AC, et al. Frequency and symptoms of hypoglycaemia experienced by patients with type 2 diabetes treated with insulin. Diabetic Med 1993; 10: 231–7

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  21. Hepburn DA, Patrick AW, Eadington DW, et al. Unawareness of hypoglycaemia in insulin-treated patients: prevalence and relationship to autonomic neuropathy. Diabetic Med 1990; 7: 711–7

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  22. Schneider SH, Vitug A, Ananthakrishnan R, et al. Impaired adrenergic response to prolonged exercise in type I diabetes. Metabolism 1991; 40: 1219–25

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  23. Liu D, Adamson U, Lins PE, et al. An analysis of the glucagon response to hypoglycaemia in patients with type 1 diabetes and in healthy subjects. Diabetic Med 1993; 10: 246–54

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  24. Hepburn DA, Patrick AW, Brash HM, et al. Hypoglycaemia unawareness in type 1 diabetes: a lower plasma glucose is required to stimulate sympatho-adrenal activation. Diabetic Med 1991; 8: 934–45

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  25. Egger M, Smith GD, Teuscher AU, et al. Influence of human insulin on symptoms and awareness of hypoglycaemia: a randomised double-blind crossover trial. BMJ 1991; 303: 622–6

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  26. Lingenfelser T, Overkamp D, Renn W, et al. Different awareness of hypoglycaemia induced by human or purified pork insulin in type I diabetic patients. Diabetes Res Clin Pract 1991; 13: 29–36

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  27. Meneilly GS, Milberg WP, Tuokko H. Differential effects of human and animal insulin on the responses to hypoglycemia in elderly patients with NIDDM. Diabetes 1995; 44: 272–7

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  28. Kern W, Lieb K, Kerner W, et al. Differential effects of human and pork insulin-induced hypoglycemia on neuronal functions in humans. Diabetes 1990; 39: 1091–8

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  29. Dagogo JS, Rattarasarn C, Cryer PE. Reversal of hypoglycemia unawareness, but not defective glucose counterregulation, in IDDM. Diabetes 1994; 43: 1426–34

    Google Scholar 

  30. Caprio S, Napoli R, Sacca L, et al. Impaired stimulation of gluconeogenesis during prolonged hypoglycemia in intensively treated insulin-dependent diabetic subjects. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1992; 75: 1076–80

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  31. Davis M, Mellman M, Friedman S, et al. Recovery of epinephrine response but not hypoglycemic symptom threshold after intensive therapy in type 1 diabetes. Am J Med 1994; 97: 535–42

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  32. Fanelli C, Pampanelli S, Epifano L, et al. Long-term recovery from unawareness, deficient counterregulation and lack of cognitive dysfunction during hypoglycaemia, following institution of rational, intensive insulin therapy in IDDM. Diabetologia 1994; 37: 1265–76

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  33. Hoffman RP, Singer GC, Drash AL, et al. Plasma catecholamine responses to hypoglycemia in children and adolescents with IDDM. Diabetes Care 1991; 14: 81–8

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  34. Liu DT, Adamson UC, Lins PE, et al. Inhibitory effect of circulating insulin on glucagon secretion during hypoglycemia in type I diabetic patients. Diabetes Care 1992; 15: 59–65

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  35. Liu D, Moberg E, Kollind M, et al. A high concentration of circulating insulin suppresses the glucagon response to hypoglycemia in normal man. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1991; 73: 1123–8

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  36. Cranston I, Lomas J, Maran A, et al. Restoration of hypoglycaemia awareness in patients with long duration insulin-dependent diabetes. Lancet 1994; 344: 283–7

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  37. Egger M, Smith GD, Imhoof H, et al. Risk of severe hypoglycaemia in insulin treated diabetic patients transferred to human insulin: a case control study. BMJ 1991; 303: 617–21

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  38. Jorgensen LN, Dejgaard A, Pramming SK. Human insulin and hypoglycaemia: a literature survey. Diabetic Med 1994; 11: 925–34

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  39. Patrick AW, Bodmer CW, Tieszen KL, et al. Human insulin and awareness of acute hypoglycemic symptoms in insulin dependent diabetes. Lancet 1991; 338: 528–32

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  40. Lingenfelser T, Renn W, Plonz C, et al. Catecholamine response during human and pork insulin-induced hypoglycemia in IDDM patients. Diabetes Care 1992; 15: 261–4

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  41. Lingenfelser T, Pickert A, Pfohl M, et al. Hypothalamic-pituitary activation does not differ during human and porcine insulin-induced hypoglycemia in insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. Clin Invest 1993; 72: 56–9

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  42. Ferrer JP, Esmatjes E, Gonzalez CJ, et al. Symptomatic and hormonal hypoglycaemic responses to human and porcine insulin in patients with type I diabetes mellitus. Diabetic Med 1992; 9: 522–7

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  43. Bendtson I, Binder C. Counterregulatory hormonal response to insulin-induced hypoglycaemia in insulin-dependent diabetic patients: a comparison of equimolar amounts of porcine and semisynthetic human insulin. J Intern Med 1991; 229: 293–6

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  44. Muhlhauser I, Heinemann L, Fritsche E, et al. Hypoglycemic symptoms and frequency of severe hypoglycemia in patients treated with human and animal insulin preparations. Diabetes Care 1991; 14: 745–9

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  45. Colagiuri S, Miller JJ, Petocz P. Double-blind crossover comparison of human and porcine insulin in patients reporting lack of hypoglycaemia awareness. Lancet 1992; 339: 1432–5

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  46. MacLeod KM, Gold AE, Frier BM. A trial of human and porcine insulin in Type 1 diabetic patients. Diabet Med 1995; 12: 134–41

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  47. Heine RJ, van der Heyden EA, van der Veen EA. Responses to human and procine insulin in healthy subjects. Lancet 1989; II: 946–9

    Google Scholar 

  48. Gerich JE. Oral hypoglycemic agents. NEngl J Med 1989; 321: 1231–45

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  49. Jennings AM, Wislon RM, Ward JD. Symptomatic hypoglycaemia in NIDDM patients treated with oral hypoglycaemic agents. Diabetes Care 1989; 12: 203–8

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  50. Thomson FJ, Masson EA, Leeming JT, et al. Lack of knowledge of symptoms of hypoglycaemia by elderly diabetic patients. Age Ageing 1991; 20: 404–6

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  51. Meneilly GS, Cheung E, Tuokko H. Counterregulatory hormone responses to hypoglycemia in the elderly patient with diabetes. Diabetes 1994; 43: 403–10

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  52. Ferner RE, Neil HAW. Sulphonylureas and hypoglycaemia. BMJ 1988; 296: 949–50

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  53. Sugarman JR. Hypoglycemia associated hospitalizations in a population with a high prevalence of non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. Diabetes Res Clin Pract 1991; 14: 139–47

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  54. Chan TYK, Chan JCN, Tomlinson B, et al. Adverse reactions to drugs as a cause of admission to a general teaching hospital in Hong Kong. Drug Saf 1992; 7: 235–40

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  55. Chan TYK, Chan JCN, Critchley JAJH. Severe hypoglycaemia in Chinese patients with non-insulin-dependent diabetes treated with insulin or sulphonylureas. Pharmacoepidemiol Drug Saf 1992; 1: 207–11

    Google Scholar 

  56. Harrower AD. Comparison of efficacy, secondary failure rate, and complications of sulfonylureas. J Diabetes Complications 1994; 8: 201–3

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  57. Tessier D, Dawson K, Tetrault JP, et al. Glibenclamide vs gliclazide in type 2 diabetes of the elderly. Diabet Med 1994; 11: 974–80

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  58. Krentz AJ, Ferner RE, Bailey CJ. Comparative tolerability profilesof oral antidiabetic agents. Drug Saf 1994; 11: 223–41

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  59. Asplund K, Wiholm BE, Lundman B. Severe hypoglycaemia during treatment with glipizide. Diabet Med 1991; 8: 726–31

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  60. Huminer D, Dux S, Rosenfeld JB, et al. Inadvertent sulfonylurea-induced hypoglcemia: a dangerous, but preventable condition. Ann Intern Med 1989; 149: 1890–2

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  61. Sledge ED, Broadstone VL. Hypoglycemia due to a pharmacy dispensing error. South Med J 1993; 86: 1272–3

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  62. Chan TYK, Chan JCN, Choi SS, et al. Recurrent glibenclamide-induced hypoglycemia: the importance of obtaining a comprehensive medication history. Ann Pharmacother 1994; 28: 119–20

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  63. Jackson JE, Bressler R. Clinical pharmacology of sulphonylurea hypoglycaemic agents. Drugs 1981; 22: 295–320

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  64. Feely J, Peden N. Enhanced sulfonylurea-induced hypoglycaemia with cimetidine. Br J Clin Pharmacol 1983; 16: 607P

    Google Scholar 

  65. MacWalter RS, El Debani AH, Feely J, et al. Potentiation by ranitidine of the hypoglycaemic response to glypizide in diabetic patients. Br J Clin Pharmacol 1985; 19: 121P–2P

    Google Scholar 

  66. Lee K, Mize R, Lowenstein SR. Glyburide-induced hypoglycemia and ranitidine. Ann Int Med 1987; 107: 261–2

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  67. Shrivastava RK, Edwards D. Hypoglycemia associated with imipramine. Biol Psychiatry 1983; 18: 1509–10

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  68. True BL, Perry PL, Burns EA. Profound hypoglycaemia with the addition of a tricyclic antidepressant to maintenance sulphonylurea therapy. Am J Psychiatry 1987; 144: 1220–1

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  69. Bailey CJ. Hypoglycaemic, antihyperglycaemic and anti-diabetic drugs. Diabet Med 1992; 9: 482–3

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  70. Bell DSH. Alcohol and NIDDM patients. Diabetes Care 1996; 19; 509–13

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  71. Berman JD, Cook DM, Buchman M, et al. Diminished adrenocorticotropin response to insulin-induced hypoglycemia in nondepressed, actively drinking male alcoholics. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1990; 71: 712–7

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  72. Avogaro A, Beltramello P, Gnudi L, et al. Alcohol intake impairs glucose counterregulation during acute insulin-induced hypoglycemia in IDDM patients: evidence for a critical role of free fatty acids. Diabetes 1993; 42: 1626–34

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  73. Christiansen C, Thomsen C, Rasmussen O, et al. Acute effects of graded alcohol intake on glucose, insulin and free fatty acid levels in non-insulin-dependent diabetic subjects. Eur J Clin Nutr 1993; 47: 648–52

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  74. Critchley JAJH, Proudfoot AT, Boyd SG, et al. Deaths and paradoxes after intentional insulin overdosage. BMJ 1984; 289: 225

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  75. Vogel C, Caraccio T, Mofenson H, et al. Alcohol intoxication in young children. J Toxicol Clin Toxicol 1995; 33: 25–33

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  76. Yang CC, Yang LY, Deng JF. Hypoglycemia following ethanol ingestion in children: report of a case. J Formos Med Assoc 1995; 94: 267–70

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  77. Hornfeldt CS. A report of acute ethanol poisoning in a child: mouthwash versus cologne, perfume and after-shave. J Toxicol Clin Toxicol 1992; 30: 115–21

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  78. Diwan PV, Sastry MS, Satyanarayana NV. Potentiation of hypoglycemic response of glibenclamide by piroxicam in rats and humans. Indian J Exp Biol 1992; 30: 317–9

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  79. Giugliano D, Ceriello A, Saccomanno E, et al. Effects of salicylate, tolbutamide and prostaglandin E2 on insulin responses to glucose in non-insulin-dependent diabetes. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1985; 61: 160–6

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  80. Bratusch-Marrain PR, Vierhapper H, Komjati M, et al. Acetylsalicylic acid impairs insulin-mediated glucose utilization and reduces insulin clearance in healthy and non-insulin-dependent diabetic men. Diabetologia 1985; 28: 671–6

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  81. Raschke R, Arnold CP, Richeson R, et al. Refractory hypoglycemia secondary to topical salicylate intoxication. Arch Intern Med 1991; 151: 591–3

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  82. DeFronzo RA, Ferrannini E. Insulin resistance: a multifaceted syndrome responsible for NIDDM, obesity, hypertension, dyslipidemia, and atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease. Diabetes Care 1991; 14: 173–94

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  83. Yudkin JS. Hypertension and non-insulin-dependent diabetes. BMJ 1991; 303: 730–2

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  84. Lithell HOL. Effect of antihypertensive drugs on insulin, glucose, and lipid metabolism. Diabetes Care 1991; 40: 203–9

    Google Scholar 

  85. Klarr JM, Bhatt MV, Donn SM. Neonatal adrenergic blockade following single dose maternal labetalol administration. Am J Perinatol 1994; 11: 91–3

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  86. Holm G, Herlitz J, Smith I. Severe hypoglycaemia during physical exercise and treatment with beta-blockers. BMJ 1981; 282: 1360

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  87. Kerr D, MacDonald IA, Heller SR, et al. Beta-adrenoceptor blockade and hypoglycaemia: a randomised, double-blind, placebo controlled comparison of metoprolol CR, atenolol and propranolol LA in normal subjects. Br J Clin Pharmacol 1990; 29: 685–93

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  88. Angelo-Nielson K. Timolol topically and diabetes mellitus. JAMA 1980; 244: 2263

    Google Scholar 

  89. Pollare T, Lithell H, Berne C. A comparison of the effects of hydrochlorothiazide and captopril on glucose and lipid metabolism in patients with hypertension. N Engl J Med 1989; 321: 868–73

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  90. Herings RMC, de Boer A, Stricker BHC, et al. Hypoglycaemia associated with use of inhibitors of angiotensin converting enzyme. Lancet 1995; 345: 1195–7

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  91. Morris AD, Donnelly R. Angiotensin II: an insulin-sensitizing vasoactive hormone? J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1996; 81: 1303–6

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  92. Jauch KW, Hartl W, Guenther B, et al. Captopril enhances insulin responsiveness of forearm muscle tissue in non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. Eur J Clin Invest 1987; 17: 448–54

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  93. Zimmerman BG, Sybertz EJ, Wong PC. Interaction between sympathetic and renin-angiotensin system. J Hypertens 1984; 2: 581–4

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  94. Madsen BK, Holmer P, Ibsen H, et al. The influence of captopril on the epinephrine response to insulin-induced hypoglycemia in humans: the interaction between the renin-angiotensin system and the sympathetic nervous system. Am J Hypertens 1992; 5 (6 Pt 1): 361–5

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  95. Shionoiri H, Gotoh E, Ito T, et al. Long-term therapy with terazosin may improve glucose and lipid metabolism in hypertensive: a multicenter prospective study. Am J Med Sci 1994; 307 Suppl. 1: S91–5

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  96. Lund-Johnson P, Hjermann I, Iversen BM, et al. Selective alpha-1 inhibitors: first or second-line antihypertensive agents? Cardiology 1993; 83: 150–9

    Google Scholar 

  97. Smith RC, Sullivan M, Geller J. Inadequate adrenergic response to disopyramide-induced hypoglycemia. Ann Pharmacother 1992; 26: 490–1

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  98. Cacoub P, Deray G, Baumelou A, et al. Disopyramide-induced hypoglycaemia case report and reveiw of the literature. Fundam Clin Pharmacol 1989; 3: 527–35

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  99. Stapleton JT, Gilman MW. Hypoglycaemic coma due to disopyramide toxicity [letter]. South Med J 1983; 76: 1453

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  100. Jeandel C, Preiss MA, Pierson H, et al. Hypoglycaemia induced by cibenzoline. Lancet 1988; I: 1232–3

    Google Scholar 

  101. Hilleman DE, Mohiuddin SM, Ahmed TS, et al. Cibenzoline-induced hypoglycaemia. Drug Intell Clin Pharm 1987; 21: 38–40

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  102. Gachot BA, Bezier M, Cherrier JF, et al. Cibenzoline and hypoglycemia [letter]. Lancet 1988; II: 280

    Google Scholar 

  103. Randle PJ, Hales CN, Garland PB, et al. The glucose fatty-acid cycle: its role in insulin sensitivity and the metabolic disturbances of diabetes mellitus. Lancet 1963; II: 785–9

    Google Scholar 

  104. Björntorp P. Fatty acids, hyperinsulinemia, and insulin resistance: which comes first? Curr Opin Lipidol 1994; 5: 166–74

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  105. Saha AK. Lipid abnormalities in tissues of the KKAy mouse: effects of pioglitazone on malonyl-CoA and diacylglycerol. Am J Physiol 1994; 267: E95–E101

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  106. Donnelly R, Morris AD. Drugs and insulin resistance: clinical methods of evaluation and new pharmacological approaches to metabolism. Br J Clin Pharmacol 1994; 37: 311–20

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  107. Ahmad S. Gemfibrozil: interaction with glyburide [letter]. South Med J 1991; 84: 102

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  108. Brazy JE, Pupkin MJ. Effects of maternal isoxsuprine administration on preterm infants. J Paediatr 1979; 94: 444–8

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  109. Musci MNJ, Abbasi S, Otis C, et al. Prolonged fetal ritodrine exposure and immediate neonatal outcome. J Perinatol 1988; 8: 27–32

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  110. Caldwell G, Scougall I, Boddy K, et al. Fasting hyperinsulinaemic hypoglycemia after ritodrine therapy for premature labour. Obstet Gynaecol 1987; 70: 478–80

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  111. Wasserman D, Amitai Y. Hypoglycemia following albuterol overdose in a child. Am J Emerg Med 1992; 10: 556–7

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  112. Krentz AJ, Boyle PJ, MacDonald LM, et al. Octreotide: a long-acting inhibitor of endogenous hormone secretion for human metabolic investigations. Metabolism 1994; 43: 24–31

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  113. Lamberts SWJ, Uitterlinden P, Verschoor L, et al. Long term treatment of acromegaly with the somatostatin analogue SM201-995. N Engl J Med 1985; 313: 1576–80

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  114. Stehouwer CD, Lems WF, Fischer HR, et al. Aggravation of hypoglycaemia in insulinoma patients by the long-acting somatostatin analogue octreotide (Sandostatin). Acta Endocrinol 1989; 21: 34–40

    Google Scholar 

  115. Popvic V, Nesovic M, Micic D. Hypoglycaemia in acromegalic patients with long acting somatostatin analogue (SMS 201-995). Horm Metab Res 1989; 21: 282–4

    Google Scholar 

  116. Brunner JE, Kruger DF, Basha MA, et al. Hyooglycaemia after administration of somotostatin analog (SMS 201-995) in metastatic carcinoid. Henry Ford Hosp Med J 1990; 37: 60–2

    Google Scholar 

  117. Krentz AJ, Boyle PJ, Justice KM, et al. Successful treatment of severe refractory sulfonylurea-induced hypoglycemia with octreotide. Diabetes Care 1993; 16: 184–6

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  118. Boyle PJ, Justice K, Krentz AJ, et al. Octreotide reverses hyperinsulinemia and prevents hypoglycemia induced by sulfonylurea overdoses. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1993; 76: 752–6

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  119. Phillips RE, Warrell DA, Looareesuwan S. Effectiveness of SMS 201–995, a synthetic long-acting somatostatin analogue in treatment of quinine-induced hyperinsulinaemia. Lancet 1986; I: 713–15

    Google Scholar 

  120. Phillips RE, Looareesuwan S, Molyneux ME, et al. Hypoglycaemia and counterregulatory hormone responses in severe falciparum malaria: treatment with Sandostatin. Q J Med 1993; 86: 233–40

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  121. Jérôme B, Bluet-Pajot MT, Epelbaum J. Neuroendocrine regulation of growth hormone. Eur J Endocrinol 1995; 132: 12–24

    Google Scholar 

  122. Morgan JM, Saris SD, Capuzzi DM, et al. Hypoglycemic and insulin response to a continuous intravenous infusion of CGP-35126 recombinant human insulin-like growth factor-I (rhIGF-I) in healthy males. J Clin Pharmacol 1993; 33: 366–72

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  123. Zenobi PD, Holzmann P, Glatz Y, et al. Improvement of lipid profile in type 2 (non-insulin-dependent) diabetes mellitus by insulin-like growth factor I. Diabetologia 1993; 36: 465–9

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  124. Zenobi PD, Jaeggi-Groisman SE, Riesen WF, et al. Insulin-like growth factor-I improves glucose and lipid metabolism in type 2 diabetes mellitus. J Clin Invest 1992; 90: 2234–41

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  125. White NJ, Warrell DA, Chanthavanich P. Severe hypoglycaemia and hyperinsulinaemia in falciparum malaria. N Engl J Med 1983; 309: 61–6

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  126. Krishna S, Waller DW, ter Kuile F, et al. Lactic acidosis and hypoglycaemia in children with severe malaria: pathophysiological and prognostic significance. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 1994; 88: 67–73

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  127. Assan R, Perronne C, Chotard L, et al. Mefloquine-associated hypoglycaemia in a cachectic AIDS patient. Diabet Metab 1995; 21: 54–8

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  128. Okitolonda W, Delacollette C, Malengreau M, et al. High incidence of hypoglycemia in African patients treated with intravenous quinine for severe malaria. BMJ 1987; 295: 716–18

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  129. Looareesuwan S, Phillips RE, White NJ. Quinine and severe falciparum malaria in late pregnancy. Lancet 1985; II: 4–8

    Google Scholar 

  130. Phillips RE, Looareesuwan S, White NJ. Hypoglycaemia and antimalarial drugs: quinidine and release of insulin. BMJ 1986; 29: 1391–21

    Google Scholar 

  131. White NJ, Miller KD, Marsh K. Does chloroquine cause hypoglycaemia in the absence of clinical malaria. Lancet 1987; II: 281–2

    Google Scholar 

  132. Abu-Shakra M, Lee P. Hypoglycemia: an unusual adverse reaction to chloroquine [letter]. Clin Exp Rheumatol 1994; 12: 95

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  133. Bamber MG, Redpath A. Chloroquine and hypoglycaemia [letter]. Lancet 1987; I: 1211

    Google Scholar 

  134. Dyer JR, Davis TM, Giele C, et al. The pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of quinine in the diabetic and non-diabetic elderly. Br J Clin Pharmacol 1994; 38: 205–12

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  135. Herchline TE, Plouffe JF, Para MF. Diabetes mellitus presenting with ketoacidosis following pentamidine therapy in patients with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. J Infect 1991; 22: 41–4

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  136. Sharpe SM. Pentamidine and hypoglycaemia [letter]. Ann Intern Med 1983; 99: 128

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  137. Salmeron S, Petitprez P, Katalama C. Pentamidine and pancreatitis. Ann Intern Med 1986; 105: 140–1

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  138. Stahl-Bayliss CM, Kaiman CM, Laskin OL. Pentamidine-induced hypoglycaemia in patients with the acquired immune deficiency syndrome. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1986; 39: 271–5

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  139. Perronne C, Bricaire F, Leport C, et al. Hypoglycaemia and diabetes mellitus following parenteral pentamidine mesylate treatment in AIDS patients. Diabet Med 1990; 7: 585–9

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  140. Assan R, Perronne C, Assan D, et al. Pentamidine-induced derangements of glucose homeostasis: determinant roles of renal failure and drug accumulation. A study of 128 patients. Diabetes Care 1995; 18: 47–55

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  141. Karboski JA, Godley PJ. Inhaled pentamidine and hypoglycemia [letter]. Ann Intern Med 1988; 108: 490

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  142. Poretsky L, Moses AC. Hypoglycemia associated with trimethoprim/sulphamethoxazole therapy. Diabetes Care 1984; 7: 508–9

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  143. Schattner A, Rimon E, Green L, et al. Hypoglycaemia induced by cotrimoxazole in AIDS [letter]. BMJ 1988; 297: 742

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  144. Johnson JA, Kappel JE, Sharif MN. Hypoglycemia secondary to trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole administration in a renal transplant patient. Ann Pharmacother 1993; 27: 304–6

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  145. Huntsinger NJ. Hypoglycaemic effect of lithium. Biol Psychiatry 1987; 22: 798–9

    Google Scholar 

  146. Rigas JR, Tong WP, Kris MG, et al. Phase I clinical and pharmacological study of chloroquinoxaline sulfonamide. Cancer Res 1992; 52: 6619–23

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  147. Rigas JR, Francis PA, Miller VA, et al. Clinical and pharmacology study of chloroquinoxaline sulfonamide given on a weekly schedule. Cancer Chemother Pharmacol 1995; 35: 483–8

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  148. Bichel T, Canivet JL, Damas P, et al. Malignant hyperthermia and severe hypoglycemia after reexposure to halothane. Acta Anaesthesiol Belg 1994; 45: 23–7

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  149. Schneider M. Fatal hepatic necrosis following cardiac surgery and enflurane anaesthesia. Anaesth Intensive Care 1995; 23: 225–7

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  150. Rowland MJ, Bransome EJ, Hendry LB. Hypoglycemia caused by selegiline, an antiparkinsonian drug: can such side effects be predicted? J Clin Pharmacol 1994; 34: 80–5

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  151. Yao K, Uchigata Y, Kyono H, et al. Human insulin-specific immunoglobulin G antibody and hypoglycemic attacks after the injection of gold thioglucose. J Endocrinol Invest 1992; 15: 43–7

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  152. Singh B, Gupta S, Minocha SK, et al. Hypoglycaemia in aluminium phosphide poisoning. J Assoc Physicians India 1994; 42: 663

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  153. Patial RK, Bansal SK, Kashyap S, et al. Hypoglycaemia following zinc phosphide poisoning. J Assoc Physicians India 1990; 38: 306–7

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  154. Zogno MG, Tolfo L, Draghi E. Hypoglycemia caused by maprotiline in a patient taking oral antidiabetics. Ann Pharmacother 1994; 28: 406

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  155. Otsuka M, Akiba T, Okita Y, et al. Lactic acidosis with hypoglycemia and hyperammonemia observed in two uremic patients during calcium hopantenate treatment. Jpn J Med 1990; 29: 324–8

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  156. Almirall J, Montoliu J, Torras A, et al. Propoxyphene-induced hypoglycaemia. Nephron 1989; 53: 273–5

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  157. Binder C, Bendtson I. Endocrine emergencies: hypoglycaemia. Baillieres Clin Endocrinol Metab 1992; 6: 23–39

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  158. Georgakopoulos K, Katsilambros N, Fragaki M, et al. Recovery from insulin-induced hypoglycemia after saccharose or glucose administration. Clin Physiol Biochem 1990; 8: 267–72

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  159. Soltesz G. Hypoglycaemia in the diabetic child. Baillieres Clin Endocrinol Metab 1993; 7: 741–55

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  160. Slama G, Alamowitch C, Desplanque N, et al. A new non-invasive method for treating insulin-reaction: intranasal lyophylized glucagon. Diabetologia 1990; 33: 671–4

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  161. Rosenfalck AM, Bendtson I, Jorgensen S, et al. Nasal glucagon in the treatment of hypoglycaemia in type 1 (insulin-dependent) diabetic patients. Diabetes Res Clin Pract 1992; 17: 43–50

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  162. Hvidberg A, Rasmussen MH, Christensen NJ, et al. Theophylline enhances glucose recovery after hypoglycemia in healthy man and in type I diabetic patients. Metabolism 1994; 43: 776–81

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  163. Gurwitz JH, Bohn RL, Glynn RJ, et al. Glucocorticoids and the risk for initiation of hypoglycemic therapy. Arch Intern Med 1994; 154: 97–101

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  164. Walker ED. Hyperglycemia: a complication of chemotherapy in children. Cancer Nurs 1988; 11: 18–22

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  165. Weissman DE, Dufer D, Vogel V, et al. Corticosteroid toxicity in neuro-oncology patients. J Neurooncol 1987; 5: 125–8

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  166. Roth D, Milgrom M, Esquenazi V, et al. Posttransplant hyperglycemia: increased incidence in cyclosporin-treated renal allograft recipients. Transplantation 1989; 47: 278–81

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  167. Kazzi NJ, Brans YW, Poland RL. Dexamethasone effects on the hospital course of infants with bronchopulmonary dysplasia who are dependent on artificial ventilation. Pediatrics 1990; 86: 722–7

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  168. Spear ML, Reeves G, Pearlman SA. Diabetic ketoacidosis after steroid administration for bronchopulmonary dysplasia: a case report. J Perinatol 1993; 13: 232–4

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  169. Feuerstein BL, Lebowitz MR, Blumenthal SA, et al. Severe hyperkalemia in two patients with diabetes after cosyntropin administration. J Diabetes Complications 1992; 6: 203–6

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  170. Bruno A, Carucci P, Cassader M, et al. Serum glucose, insulin and C-peptide response to oral glucose after intravenous administration of hydrocortisone and methylprednisolone in man. Eur J Clin Pharmacol 1994; 46: 411–5

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  171. Cerqueti PM, Sacca SC, Allegri P, et al. Deflazacort in the treatment of uveitis: a comparative study versus prednisone. Allergol Immunopathol (Madr) 1993; 21: 107–10

    Google Scholar 

  172. Ferrari A, Pasqualetti D, Del BP, et al. Prednisone versus deflazacort in the treatment of autoimmune thrombocytopenic purpura: evaluation of clinical response and immunological modifications. Haematologica 1991; 76: 342–5

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  173. Perlman JA, Russell-Briefel R, Ezzati T, et al. Oral glucose tolerance and the potency of contraceptive progestins. J Chronic Dis 1985; 38: 857–64

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  174. Eschwége E, Fontbonne A, Simon D, et al. Oral contraceptives, insulin resistance and ischaemic vascular disease. Int J Gynaecol Obstet 1991; 31: 263–9

    Google Scholar 

  175. Spellacy WN, Buhi WC, Birk SA. The effect of estrogens on carbohydrate metabolism: glucose, insulin and growth hormone studies of 171 women ingesting Premarin, mestranol and ethinylestradiol for six months. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1981; 114: 378–92

    Google Scholar 

  176. Spellacy WN. Carbohydrate metabolism during treatment with oestrogen, progestogen and low-dose oral contraceptives. Am J Obstet Gynaecol 1982; 142: 732–4

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  177. Bottino JC, Tashima CK. Medroxyprogesterone acetate and diabetes mellitus. Ann Intern Med 1976; 84: 341–2

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  178. Panwalker AP. Hyperglycemia induced by megestrol acetate [letter]. Ann Intern Med 1992; 116: 878

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  179. De Pirro R, Forte F, Bertoli A, et al. Changes in insulin receptors during the menstrual cycle in normal women. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1981; 52: 29–33

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  180. De Pirro R, Forte F, Bertoli A, et al. Changes in insulin receptors during oral contraception. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1981; 52: 29–33

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  181. Munck A. Glucocorticoid inhibition of glucose uptake by peripheral tissues: old and new evidence, molecular mechanisms and physiological significance. Perspect Biol Med 1971; 14: 265–9

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  182. Skouby SO, Molsted-Pedersen L, Petersen KR. Contraception for women with diabetes: an update. Ballieres Clin Obstet Gynaecol 1991; 5: 493–503

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  183. van der Vange N, Kloosterboer HJ, Haspels AA. Effect of seven low-dose combined oral contraceptive preparations on carbohydrate metabolism. Am J Obstet Gynaecol 1987; 156: 918–22

    Google Scholar 

  184. Molsted-Pederson L, Skouby SO, P D. Preconception counselling and contraception after gestational diabetes. Diabetes Care 1991; 40 Suppl. 2: 147–50

    Google Scholar 

  185. Miccoli R, Orlandi MC, Fruzzetti F. Metabolic effects of three new low dose pills: a six month experience. Contraception 1989; 39: 643–52

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  186. Kung AWC, Ma JTC, Wong VCW. Glucose and lipid metabolism with triphasic oral contraceptives in women with history of gestational diabetes. Contraception 1989; 35: 257–69

    Google Scholar 

  187. Kamau RK, Maina FW, Kigondu C, et al. The effect of lowoestrogen combined pill, progestogen-only pill and medroxyprogesterone acetate on oral glucose tolerance test. East Afr Med J 1990; 67: 550–5

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  188. Mathews KA, Meilahn E, Lewis MPM. Menopause and risk factors for CHD. N Engl J Med 1989; 321: 641–6

    Google Scholar 

  189. Jacobs HS, Loeffler FE. Postmenopausal hormone replacement therapy. BMJ 1992; 305: 1403–8

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  190. Bengtsson BA, Eden S, Lonn L, et al. Treatment of adults with growth hormone (GH) deficiency with recombinant human GH. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1993; 76: 309–17

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  191. Rosenbaum M, Gertner JM, Leibel RL. Effects of systemic growth hormone (GH) administration on regional adipose tissue distribution and metabolism in GH deficient children. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1989; 69: 1274–81

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  192. De Boer H, Blok G-J, Van der Veen EA. Clinical aspects of growth hormone deficiency in adults. Endocrine Rev 1995; 16: 63–86

    Google Scholar 

  193. Ho KK, Hoffman DM. Aging and growth hormone. Horm Res 1993; 40: 80–6

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  194. Garg AK. Hyperglycemia during replacement growth hormone therapy [letter]. J Pediatr 1994; 125: 329

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  195. Lehmann S, Cerra FB. Growth hormone and nutritional support: adverse metabolic effects. Nutr Clin Pract 1992; 7: 27–30

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  196. Ingemarsson I, Arulkumaran S, Kottegoda SR. Complication of beta-mimetic therapy in preterm labour. Aust N Z J Obstet Gynaecol 1985; 25: 182–9

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  197. Adam K, Ou CN, Cotton DB. Combined effect of terbutaline and betamethasone on glucose homeostasis in preterm labor. Fetal Diagn Ther 1993; 8: 187–94

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  198. Gündogdu AS, Brown PM, Juul S, et al. Comparison of hormonal and metabolic effects of salbutamol infusion in normal subjects and insulin-requiring diabetics. Lancet 1979; II: 1317–21

    Google Scholar 

  199. Spellacy WN, Cruz AC, Buhi WC, et al. The acute effects of ritodrine infusion on maternal metabolism: measurements of levels of glucose, insulin, glucagon, triglycerides, cholesterol, placental lactogen and chorionic gonadotrophin. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1978; 131: 637–42

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  200. Kirkpatrick C, Quenon M, Desir D. Blood anions and electrolytes during ritodrine infusion in preterm labour. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1980; 138: 523–7

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  201. Leslie D, Coats PM. Salbutamol-induced diabetic ketoacidosis [letter]. BMJ 1977; II: 768

    Google Scholar 

  202. Huupponen R, Pihlajamäki K. Effect of blood glucose level on the metabolic response of intravenous salbutamol. Int J Clin Pharmacol Ther Toxicol 1986; 24: 374–6

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  203. Dawson KP, Penna AC, Manglick P. Acute asthma, salbutamol and hyperglycaemia. Acta Paediatr 1995; 84: 305–7

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  204. MacRury S, Neilson R, Goodwin K. Benylin dependence, metabolic acidosis and hyperglycemia. Postgrad Med J 1987; 63: 587–8

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  205. Meechan JG, Welbury RR. Metabolic responses to oral surgery under local anesthesia and sedation with intravenous midazolam: the effects of two different local anesthetics. Anesth Prog 1993; 39: 9–12

    Google Scholar 

  206. Karch SB. High-dose epinephrine. Am J Emerg Med 1993; 11: 423–6

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  207. Sessler CN. Theophylline toxicity: clinical features of 116 consecutive cases. Am J Med 1990; 86: 567–76

    Google Scholar 

  208. Hagley MT, Traeger SM, Schuckman H. Pronounced metabolic response to modest theophylline overdose. Ann Pharmacother 1994; 28: 195–6

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  209. Shannon M. Hypokalemia, hyperglycemia and plasma catecholamine activity after severe theophylline intoxication. J Toxicol Clin Toxicol 1994; 32: 41–7

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  210. Shannon M, Lovejoy FJ. Effect of acute versus chronic intoxication on clinical features of theophylline poisoning in children. J Pediatr 1992; 121: 125–30

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  211. Shannon M, Lovejoy FHJ. The influence of age vs peak serum concentration on life-threatening events after chronic theophylline intoxication. Arch Intern Med 1990; 150: 2045–8

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  212. Skarfors ET, Lithell HO, Selinus I, et al. Do antihypertensive drugs precipitate diabetes in predisposed men? BMJ 1989; 298: 1147–52

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  213. Bengtsson C, Blohme G, Lapidus L, et al. Diabetes incidence in users and non-users of antihypertensive drugs in relation to serum insulin, glucose tolerance and degree of adiposity: a 12-year prospective population study of women in Gothenburg, Sweden. J Intern Med 1992; 231: 583–8

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  214. Lewis PJ, Kohner EM, Petrie A, et al. Deterioration of glucose tolerance in hypertensive patients on prolonged diuretic treatment. Lancet 1976; I: 564–6

    Google Scholar 

  215. Gurwitz JH, Bohn RL, Glynn RJ, et al. Antihypertensive drug therapy and the initiation of treatment for diabetes mellitus. Ann Intern Med 1993; 118: 273–8

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  216. Helderman JH, Elahi D, Andersen DK, et al. Prevention of the glucose intolerance of thiazide diuretics by maintenance of body potassium. Diabetes 1983; 32: 106–11

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  217. Knauf H. The role of low-dose diuretics in essential hypertension. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol 1993; 22 Suppl. 6: S1–7

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  218. Ferrari P, Rosman J, Weidmann P. Antihypertensive agents, serum lipoproteins and glucose metabolism. Am J Cardiol 1991; 67: 26B–35B

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  219. Roux P, Courtois H. Blood sugar regulation during treatment with indapamide in hypertensive diabetics. Postgrad Med J 1981; 57 Suppl. 2: 70–2

    Google Scholar 

  220. Osei K, Holland G, Falko JM. Indapamide: effects on apoproteins, lipoproteins and glucoregulation in ambulatory diabetic patients. Ann Intern Med 1986; 146: 1973–3

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  221. Fonseca V, Phear DN. Hyperosmolar non-ketotic diabetic syndrome precipitated by treatment with diuretics. BMJ 1982; 284: 36–7

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  222. Curtis J, Horrigan F, Ahearn D. Chlorthalidone-induced hyperosmolar hyperglycaemic non-ketotic coma. JAMA 1972; 220: 1592–3

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  223. Rowe P, Mather HG. Hyperosmolar non-ketotic diabete mellitus associated with metolazone. BMJ 1985; 291: 25–6

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  224. Hall S. Hyperosmolar non-ketotic diabetic syndrome precipitated by treatment with diuretics [letter]. BMJ 1982; 284: 665

    Google Scholar 

  225. Tasker PW, Mitchell-Heggs PF. Non-ketotic diabetic precoma associated with high dose frusemide therapy. BMJ 1976; 1: 262–7

    Google Scholar 

  226. Wicklmayr M, Rett K, Deitze G, et al. Effects of beta-blocking agents on insulin secretion and glucose disposal. Horm Metab Res 1990; 22 Suppl.: 29–33

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  227. Podolsky S, Pattavina CG. Hyperosmolar non-ketotic diabetic coma: a complication of propranolol therapy. Metabolism 1973; 22: 685–93

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  228. Dornhorst A, Powell SH, Pensky J. Aggravation by propranolol of hyperglycaemic effect of hydrochlorothiazide in type II diabetics without alteration of insulin secretion. Lancet 1985; I: 123–6

    Google Scholar 

  229. Josselson J, Sadler JH. Nephrotic range proteinuria and hyperglycemia associated with clonidine therapy. Am J Med 1986; 80: 545–6

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  230. Tse WY, Kendall M. Is there a role for beta-blockers in hypertensive diabetic patients? Diabet Med 1994; 11: 137–44

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  231. Trost BN. Glucose metabolism and calcium antagonists. Horm Metab Res 1990; 22 Suppl.: 48–56

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  232. Chan JCN, Yeung VTF, Leung DHY, et al. The effects of enalapril and nifedipine on carbohydrate and lipid metabolism in NIDDM. Diabetes Care 1994; 17: 859–62

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  233. Ahmad S. Nicardipine-induced hyperglycemia [letter]. Am Fam Physician 1992; 45: 449

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  234. Sharma SN, Iyengar SS, Hegde KP. Nifedipine-induced hyperglycaemia. J Assoc Physicians India 1990; 38: 673–4

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  235. Heyman SN. Verapamil intoxication and hyperglycaemia [letter]. J Emerg Med 1989; 7: 407

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  236. Roth A, Miller HI, Beihassen B, et al. Slow release verapamil and hyperglycemic metabolic acidosis. Ann Intern Med 1989; 110: 171–2

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  237. Enyeart JL, Price WA, Hoffman DA, et al. Profound hyperglycemia and metabolic acidosis after verapamil overdose. J Am Coll Cardiol 1983; 2: 1228–31

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  238. Chan JCN, Cockram CS. Drug-induced disturbances of carbohydrate metabolism. Adverse Drug React Toxicol Rev 1991; 10: 1–29

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  239. Holland OB, Pool PE. Metabolic changes with antihypertensive therapy of the salt sensitive patients. Am J Cardiol 1988; 61: 53H–9H

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  240. Mimouni BA, Mimouni M. Clonidine-induced hyperglycemia in a young diabetic girl [letter]. Ann Pharmacother 1993; 27: 980

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  241. Politi A, Poggio G, Margiotta A. Can amiodarone induce hyperglycaemia and hypertriglyceridaemia [letter]? BMJ 1984; 288: 285

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  242. Lakhdar AA, Farish E, Dunn FG, et al. Amiodarone therapy and glucose intolerance: a prospective trial. Eur J Clin Pharmacol 1988; 34: 651–2

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  243. Winter WE, Funahashi M, Koons J. Encainide-induced diabetes: analysis of islet cell function. Res Commun Chem Pathol Pharmacol 1992; 76: 259–68

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  244. Salerno DM, Fifield J, Krejci J, et al. Encainide-induced hyperglycaemia. Am J Med 1988; 84: 39–44

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  245. Zumoff B, Hellman L. Aggravation of diabetic hyperglycemia by chlordiazepoxide. JAMA 1977; 237: 1960–1

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  246. Tollefson G, Lesar T. Non-ketotic hyperglycemia associated with loxapine and amoxapine: case report. J Clin Psychiatry 1983; 44: 347–8

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  247. Arneson GA. Phenothiazine derivatives and glucose metabolism. J Neuropsychiatr 1964; 5: 181–98

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  248. Kamran A, Doraiswamy PM, Jane JL, et al. Severe hyperglycemia associated with high doses of clozapine [letter]. Am J Psychiatry 1994; 151: 1395

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  249. Marley J, Rohan A. Mianserin-induced hyperglycaemia. Lancet 1993; 342: 1430–1

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  250. Guigliano D, Ceriello A, di Pinto P, et al. Impaired insulin secretion in human diabetes mellitus: the effect of naloxone-induced opiate receptor blockade. Diabetes 1982; 31: 367–70

    Google Scholar 

  251. Olsen GD. Potential mechanism of cocaine-induced developmental neurotoxicity: a mini-review. Neurotoxicology 1995; 16: 159–67

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  252. Leson CK, McGuigan MA, Bryson SM. Caffeine overdose in an adolescent male. J Toxicol Clin Toxicol 1988; 26: 407–15

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  253. Craig J, Abu-Saleh M, Smith B, et al. Diabetes mellitus in patients on lithium [letter]. Lancet 1977; II: 1028

    Google Scholar 

  254. Waziri R, Nelson J. Lithium in diabetes mellitus: a paradoxical response. J Clin Psychiatry 1978; 39: 623–5

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  255. Vendesborg PB. Lithium treatment and glucose tolerance in manic melancholic patients. Acta Psychiatr Scand 1979; 59: 306–16

    Google Scholar 

  256. Lee RV, Jampol LM, Brown WV. Nephrogenic diabetes insipidus and lithium intoxication: complications of lithium carbonate therapy. N Engl J Med 1971; 284: 93–4

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  257. Martinez-Maldonaldo M, Terrell J. Lithium carbonate-induced nephrogenic diabetes insipidus and glucose intolerance [letter]. Arch Intern Med 1973; 132: 881

    Google Scholar 

  258. Singer J, Rotenberg D. Mechanisms of lithium action. N Engl J Med 1973; 289: 254–60

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  259. Cetin M, Yetgin S, Kara A, et al. Hyperglycemia, ketoacidosis and other complications of L-asparaginase in children with acute lymphoblastic leukemia. J Med 1994; 25: 219–29

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  260. Wang YJ, Chu HY, Shu SG, et al. Hyperglycemia induced by chemotherapeutic agents used in acute lymphoblastic leukemia: report of three cases. Chung Hua I Hsueh Tsa Chih (Taipei) 1993; 51: 457–61

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  261. Iyer RS, Rao SR, Pai S, et al. L-asparaginase related hyperglycemia. Indian J Cancer 1993; 30: 72–6

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  262. Sylvester RK, Lobell M, Ogden W, et al. Homoharringtonine-induced hyperglycemia. J Clin Oncol 1989; 7: 392–5

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  263. Weber J, Gunn H, Yang J, et al. A phase I trial of intravenous interleukin-6 in patients with advanced cancer. J Immunother Emphasis Tumor Immunol 1994; 15: 292–302

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  264. Krentz AJ, Dmitrewski J, Mayer D, et al. Tacrolimus (FK506) versus cyclosporin in prevention of liver allograft rejection. Lancet 1994; 344: 948–9

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  265. Takahara S, Kokado Y, Kameoka H, et al. Monitoring of FK 506 blood levels in kidney transplant recipients. Transplant Proc 1994; 26: 2106–8

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  266. Tabasco MJ, Mieles L, Carroll P, et al. Insulin requirements after liver transplantation and FK-506 immunosuppression. Transplantation 1993; 56: 862–7

    Google Scholar 

  267. Patel SR, Kvols LK, Rubin J, et al. Phase I-II study of pibenzimol hydrochloride (NSC 322921) in advanced pancreatic carcinoma. Invest New Drugs 1991; 9: 53–7

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  268. Bouvet E, Casalino E, Prevost MH, et al. Fatal case of 2,3-dideoxyinosine-associated pancreatitis [letter]. Lancet 1990; 336: 1515

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  269. Munshi MN, Martin RE, Fonseca VA. Hyperosmolar non-ketotic diabetic syndrome following treatment of human immunodeficiency virus infection with didanosine. Diabetes Care 1994; 17: 316–7

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  270. Amar D, Shamoon H, Lazar EJ, et al. Acute hyperglycaemic effect of anaesthetic induction with thiopentone. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 1993; 37: 571–4

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  271. al-Rubeaan K, Ryan EA. Phenytoin-induced insulin insensitivity. DiabetMed 1991; 8: 968–70

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  272. Fariss BL, Lutcher CL. Diphenylhydantoin-induced hyperglycaemia and impaired insulin release: effect of dosage. Diabetes 1971; 20: 177–81

    Google Scholar 

  273. Schwartz ML. Severe reversible hyperglycemia as a consequence of niacin therapy. Arch Intern Med 1993; 153: 2050–2

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  274. Blanco-Coronado JL, Repetto M, Ginestal RJ, et al. Acute intoxication by endosulfan. J Toxicol Clin Toxicol 1992; 30: 575–83

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  275. Oakley DE, Ellis PP. Glycerol and hyperosmolar nonketotic coma. Am J Ophthalmol 1976; 81: 469–72

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  276. Sears ES. Nonketotic hyperosmolar hyperglycemia during glycerol therapy for cerebral edema. Neurology 1976; 26: 89–94

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  277. Whitefield CL. Isoniazid overdose: report of 40 patients with a critical analysis of treatment and suggestions for prevent. Am Rev Respir Dis 1971; 103: 887

    Google Scholar 

  278. Dickson I. Glycosuria and diabetes following INAH therapy. Med JAust 1962; 1: 325–6

    Google Scholar 

  279. Fraser AG, Harrower ADB. Convulsions and hyperglycaemia associated with nalidixic acid [letter]. BMJ 1977; 2; 1518

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  280. Takasu N, Yamada T, Miura H. Rifampicin-induced early hyperglycaemia in humans. Am Rev Respir Dis 1982; 125: 23–7

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Chinese University of Hong Kong, Prince of Wales Hospital, Shatin, N.T., Hong Kong

    Juliana C. N. Chan & Julian A. J. H. Critchley

  2. Department of Medicine, Chinese University of Hong Kong, Prince of Wales Hospital, Shatin, Hong Kong

    Clive S. Cockram

Authors
  1. Juliana C. N. Chan
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Clive S. Cockram
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Julian A. J. H. Critchley
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Chan, J.C.N., Cockram, C.S. & Critchley, J.A.J.H. Drug-Induced Disorders of Glucose Metabolism. Drug-Safety 15, 135–157 (1996). https://doi.org/10.2165/00002018-199615020-00005

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.2165/00002018-199615020-00005

Keywords

Search

Navigation