Abstract
Cover cracking caused by rebar corrosion is one of the most predominant deterioration problems of reinforced concrete structures. Cracking types include three main modes: cover spalling, cover delamination and corner cracking. However, despite being one of the most common cracking problems, corner cracking is seldom studied by way of experimental tests. In this paper, the mechanism and process of corner cracking are experimentally studied using accelerated corrosion tests together with digital image correlation (DIC). The entire process of corner cracking and the rotation phenomenon of corner cracking are experimentally recorded. Displacements around the steel/concrete interface are measured using the DIC technique. Concrete strain around the rebar is also measured with strain gauges. Bulging and crack mouth opening displacements on the cover surface are quantitatively analyzed. The extent of corrosion around the corroded rebars is recorded.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Su RKL, Zhang Y (2015) A double-cylinder model incorporating confinement effects for the analysis of corrosion-caused cover cracking in reinforced concrete structures. Corros Sci 99:205–218. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.corsci.2015.07.009
Chen E, Berrocal CG, Löfgren I, Lundgren K (2020) Correlation between concrete cracks and corrosion characteristics of steel reinforcement in pre-cracked plain and fibre-reinforced concrete beams. Mater Struct. https://doi.org/10.1617/s11527-020-01466-z
Zhang X, Zhao Y, Bernal SA (2021) Applicability discussion for multi-peak Gaussian model of corrosion layer at steel/concrete interfaces. Mater Struct. https://doi.org/10.1617/s11527-021-01651-8
Sola E, Ožbolt J, Balabanić G, Mir ZM (2019) Experimental and numerical study of accelerated corrosion of steel reinforcement in concrete: transport of corrosion products. Cem Concr Res 120:119–131. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2019.03.018
Sun H, Liu S, Cao K, Yu D, Memon SA, Liu W, Zhang X, Xing F, Zhao D (2021) Degradation mechanism of cement mortar exposed to combined sulfate–chloride attack under cyclic wetting–drying condition. Mater Struct. https://doi.org/10.1617/s11527-021-01734-6
Solgaard AOS, Michel A, Geiker M, Stang H (2013) Concrete cover cracking due to uniform reinforcement corrosion. Mater Struct 46(11):1–19. https://doi.org/10.1617/s11527-013-0016-6
Dong J, Zhao Y, Wang K, Jin W (2017) Crack propagation and flexural behaviour of RC beams under simultaneous sustained loading and steel corrosion. Constr Build Mater 151:208–219. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2017.05.193
Dasar A, Hamada H, Sagawa Y, Yamamoto D (2017) Deterioration progress and performance reduction of 40-year-old reinforced concrete beams in natural corrosion environments. Constr Build Mater 149:690–704. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2017.05.162
Li D, Wei R, Xing F, Sui L, Zhou Y, Wang W (2018) Influence of non-uniform corrosion of steel bars on the seismic behavior of reinforced concrete columns. Constr Build Mater 167:20–32. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2018.01.149
Lu Z-H, Wu S-Y, Tang Z, Zhao Y-G, Li W (2021) Effect of chloride-induced corrosion on the bond behaviors between steel strands and concrete. Mater Struct. https://doi.org/10.1617/s11527-021-01724-8
Ye H, Fu C, Jin N, Jin X (2018) Performance of reinforced concrete beams corroded under sustained service loads: a comparative study of two accelerated corrosion techniques. Constr Build Mater 162:286–297. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2017.10.108
Otieno M, Beushausen H, Alexander M (2016) Chloride-induced corrosion of steel in cracked concrete–part I: experimental studies under accelerated and natural marine environments. Cem Concr Res 79:373–385. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2015.08.009
Robuschi S, Lundgren K, Fernandez I, Flansbjer M (2020) Anchorage of naturally corroded, plain reinforcement bars in flexural members. Mater Struct. https://doi.org/10.1617/s11527-020-01471-2
Gao Y, Zheng Y, Zhang J, Xu S, Zhou X, Zhang Y (2019) Time-dependent corrosion process and non-uniform corrosion of reinforcement in RC flexural members in a tidal environment. Constr Build Mater 213:79–90. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2019.04.088
Zhang Y, Su RKL (2019) Concrete cover delamination model for non-uniform corrosion of reinforcements. Constr Build Mater 223:329–340. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2019.06.199
Zhang Y, Su RKL (2020) Corner cracking model for non-uniform corrosion-caused deterioration of concrete covers. Constr Build Mater. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2019.117410
Callahan JP, Lott JL, Kesler CE (1970) Bridge deck deterioration and crack control. J Struct Div 96(10):2021–2036
Bazant ZP (1979) Physical model for steel corrosion in concrete sea structures-application. ASCE J Struct Div 105(6):1155–1166
Chen A, Pan Z, Ma R (2017) Mesoscopic simulation of steel rebar corrosion process in concrete and its damage to concrete cover. Struct Infrastruct Eng 13(4):478–493. https://doi.org/10.1080/15732479.2016.1164730
Chernin L, Val DV (2011) Prediction of corrosion-induced cover cracking in reinforced concrete structures. Constr Build Mater 25(4):1854–1869. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2010.11.074
Chernin L, Val D, Volokh K (2010) Analytical modelling of concrete cover cracking caused by corrosion of reinforcement. Mater Struct 43(4):543–556. https://doi.org/10.1617/s11527-009-9510-2
Thybo A, Michel A, Stang H (2017) Smeared crack modelling approach for corrosion-induced concrete damage. Mater Struct 50(2):1–14. https://doi.org/10.1617/s11527-017-0999-5
Su RKL, Zhang Y (2019) A novel elastic-body-rotation model for concrete cover spalling caused by non-uniform corrosion of reinforcement. Constr Build Mater 213:549–560
Liu Y, Weyers R (1998) Modeling the time-to-corrosion cracking in chloride contaminated reinforced concrete structures. ACI Mater J 95(6):675–681. https://doi.org/10.14359/410
El Maaddawy T, Soudki K (2007) A model for prediction of time from corrosion initiation to corrosion cracking. Cement Concr Compos 29(3):168–175. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2006.11.004
Lu C, Jin W, Liu R (2011) Reinforcement corrosion-induced cover cracking and its time prediction for reinforced concrete structures. Corros Sci 53(4):1337–1347. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.corsci.2010.12.026
Zhao Y, Yu J, Jin W (2011) Damage analysis and cracking model of reinforced concrete structures with rebar corrosion. Corros Sci 53(10):3388–3397. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.corsci.2011.06.018
Zhang X, Li M, Tang L, Memon SA, Ma G, Xing F, Sun H (2017) Corrosion induced stress field and cracking time of reinforced concrete with initial defects: Analytical modeling and experimental investigation. Corros Sci 120:158–170. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.corsci.2017.01.012
Zhang J, Ling X, Guan Z (2017) Finite element modeling of concrete cover crack propagation due to non-uniform corrosion of reinforcement. Constr Build Mater 132:487–499. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2016.12.019
Jang BS, Oh BH (2010) Effects of non-uniform corrosion on the cracking and service life of reinforced concrete structures. Cem Concr Res 40(9):1441–1450. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2010.03.018
Cui Z, Alipour A (2018) Concrete cover cracking and service life prediction of reinforced concrete structures in corrosive environments. Constr Build Mater 159:652–671. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2017.03.224
Guzmán S, Gálvez JC (2017) Modelling of concrete cover cracking due to non-uniform corrosion of reinforcing steel. Constr Build Mater 155:1063–1071. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2017.08.082
Caré S, Nguyen Q, Beddiar K, Berthaud Y (2010) Times to cracking in reinforced mortar beams subjected to accelerated corrosion tests. Mater Struct 43(1–2):107–124. https://doi.org/10.1617/s11527-009-9474-2
Li CQ, Melchers RE, Zheng JJ (2006) Analytical model for corrosion-induced crack width in reinforced concrete structures. ACI Struct J 103(4):479–487. https://doi.org/10.14359/16423
Zhu X, Zi G (2017) A 2D mechano-chemical model for the simulation of reinforcement corrosion and concrete damage. Constr Build Mater 137:330–344. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2017.01.103
Qiao D, Nakamura H, Yamamoto Y, Miura T (2016) Crack patterns of concrete with a single rebar subjected to non-uniform and localized corrosion. Constr Build Mater 116:366–377. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2016.04.149
Zhao Y, Zhang X, Ding H, Jin W (2016) Non-uniform distribution of a corrosion layer at a steel/concrete interface described by a Gaussian model. Corros Sci 112:1–12. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.corsci.2016.06.021
Zhao Y, Karimi AR, Wong HS, Hu B, Buenfeld NR, Jin W (2011) Comparison of uniform and non-uniform corrosion induced damage in reinforced concrete based on a Gaussian description of the corrosion layer. Corros Sci 53(9):2803–2814. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.corsci.2011.05.017
Du X, Jin L, Zhang R (2014) Modeling the cracking of cover concrete due to non-uniform corrosion of reinforcement. Corros Sci 89:189–202. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.corsci.2014.08.025
Tran KK, Nakamura H, Kawamura K, Kunieda M (2011) Analysis of crack propagation due to rebar corrosion using RBSM. Cement Concr Compos 33(9):906–917. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2011.06.001
Šavija B, Luković M, Pacheco J, Schlangen E (2013) Cracking of the concrete cover due to reinforcement corrosion: a two-dimensional lattice model study. Constr Build Mater 44:626–638. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2013.03.063
Muthulingam S, Rao BN (2015) Non-uniform corrosion states of rebar in concrete under chloride environment. Corros Sci 93:267–282. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.corsci.2015.01.031
Chen E, Leung CKY (2017) A coupled diffusion-mechanical model with boundary element method to predict concrete cover cracking due to steel corrosion. Corros Sci 126:180–196. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.corsci.2017.07.001
Ye H, Jin N, Fu C, Jin X (2017) Rust distribution and corrosion-induced cracking patterns of corner-located rebar in concrete cover. Constr Build Mater 156:684–691. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2017.09.033
Jin L, Zhang R, Du X, Li Y (2015) Investigation on the cracking behavior of concrete cover induced by corner located rebar corrosion. Eng Fail Anal 52:129–143. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.engfailanal.2015.03.019
Xia N, Ren Q, Liang RY, Payer J, Patnaik A (2012) Nonuniform corrosion-induced stresses in steel-reinforced concrete. J Eng Mech 138(4):338–346. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)EM.1943-7889.0000337
Chen E, Leung CKY (2015) Finite element modeling of concrete cover cracking due to non-uniform steel corrosion. Eng Fract Mech 134:61–78. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.engfracmech.2014.12.011
Xi X, Yang S, Li C-Q (2018) A non-uniform corrosion model and meso-scale fracture modelling of concrete. Cem Concr Res 108:87–102. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2018.03.009
Bossio A, Monetta T, Bellucci F, Lignola GP, Prota A (2015) Modeling of concrete cracking due to corrosion process of reinforcement bars. Cem Concr Res 71:78–92. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2015.01.010
Bossio A, Lignola GP, Fabbrocino F, Monetta T, Prota A, Bellucci F, Manfredi G (2017) Nondestructive assessment of corrosion of reinforcing bars through surface concrete cracks. Struct Concr 18(1):104–117. https://doi.org/10.1002/suco.201600034
Fayyad TM, Lees JM (2017) Experimental investigation of crack propagation and crack branching in lightly reinforced concrete beams using digital image correlation. Eng Fract Mech 182:487–505. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.engfracmech.2017.04.051
Jiang Y, Jin Z, Zhao T, Chen Y, Chen F (2017) Strain field of reinforced concrete under accelerated corrosion by digital image correlation technique. J Adv Concr Technol 15(7):290–299. https://doi.org/10.3151/jact.15.290
Care S, Nguyen QT, L’Hostis VL, Berthaud Y (2008) Mechanical properties of the rust layer induced by impressed current method in reinforced mortar. Cem Concr Res 38(8–9):1079–1091. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2008.03.016
Liu Q, Su RKL (2018) A displacement-based inverse analysis method to estimate in-situ Young’s modulus of steel rust in reinforced concrete. Eng Fract Mech 192:114–128. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.engfracmech.2018.02.017
Looi DTW, Su RKL, Cheng B, Tsang HH (2017) Effects of axial load on seismic performance of reinforced concrete walls with short shear span. Eng Struct 151:312–326. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.engstruct.2017.08.030
Pan B, Qian K, Xie H, Asundi A (2009) Two-dimensional digital image correlation for in-plane displacement and strain measurement: a review. https://doi.org/10.1088/0957-0233/20/6/062001
Yoneyama S (2016) Basic principle of digital image correlation for in-plane displacement and strain measurement. Adv Compos Mater 25(2):105–123. https://doi.org/10.1080/09243046.2015.1129681
Institution BS (2011) Cement. Composition, specifications and conformity criteria for common cements. BSI,
Kong CEaDDoH (1990) Construction standard CS1: testing Concrete vol. 1.
Mohammed TU, Otsuki N, Hamada H, Yamaji T (2002) Chloride-induced corrosion of steel bars in concrete with presence of gap at steel-concrete interface. Mater J 99(2):149–156. https://doi.org/10.14359/11707
Shi J, Ming J (2017) Influence of defects at the steel-mortar interface on the corrosion behavior of steel. Constr Build Mater 136:118–125. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2017.01.007
Zhang R, Castel A, François R (2011) Influence of steel–concrete interface defects owing to the top-bar effect on the chloride-induced corrosion of reinforcement. Mag Concr Res 63(10):773–781
Optecal DIC Software (2015). CV measurements, Berkeley, CA,
Zhang Y, Su RKL (2020) Experimental investigation of the process of corrosion-caused cover cracking. Constr Build Mater. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2020.119166
International A (2003) G1–03 Standard practice for preparing, cleaning, and evaluating corrosion test specimens.
Chen L, Su RKL (2021) Corrosion rate measurement by using polarization resistance method for microcell and macrocell corrosion: theoretical analysis and experimental work with simulated concrete pore solution. Constr Build Mater 267:121003. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2020.121003
Chen L, Su RKL (2021) Influence of rebar geometry on the steel-concrete interface of reinforced concrete. Constr Build Mater 304:124668. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2021.124668
Zhao Y, Wu Y, Jin W (2013) Distribution of millscale on corroded steel bars and penetration of steel corrosion products in concrete. Corros Sci 66:160–168. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.corsci.2012.09.014
Zhao Y, Ding H, Jin W (2014) Development of the corrosion-filled paste and corrosion layer at the steel/concrete interface. Corros Sci 87:199–210. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.corsci.2014.06.032
Acknowledgements
This research work is not linked to any specific grant from a public, commercial or non-profit funding agency.
Funding
Not applicable.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflicts of interest
The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Zhang, Y., Su, R.K.L. Experimental study of corrosion-caused corner cracking using digital image correlation. Mater Struct 55, 121 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1617/s11527-022-01968-y
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1617/s11527-022-01968-y