Background

The Open Science movement can be broadly summarised as aiming to promote integrity, repeatability and transparency across all aspects of research, from data collection to publication [1]. According to Fecher and Friesike [2], these issues (the democratic and pragmatic schools of thought) relate to a desire to correct the unequal distribution of access to knowledge and increase the efficiency of knowledge creation. Here, I emphasise that evidence synthesis communities needs to better embrace Open Science not only to balance knowledge access and increase efficiency, but also to increase reliability, trust and reuse of information collected and synthesised within a review: concepts fundamental to systematic reviews and maps.

Repeatable evidence syntheses

Systematic reviews and systematic maps aim to provide a reliable synthesis of the evidence on a particular topic, making use of methods that seek to maximise repeatability and comprehensives whilst minimising subjectivity and bias [3, 4]. The central tenet of repeatability is operationalised by transparently reporting methodological activities in detail, such that all actions could be replicated and verified [5]. Typically, research transparency might be considered to relate to experimental methods, but the increasingly complex analytical methods used to analyse data should also be reported in detail. As such, the data analysed in a synthesis should be provided along with analytical methods, such that the reader could replicate the analysis to verify the results.

Reporting standards, such as the PRISMA statement [6] and ROSES [7], help to ensure that the methods are described in sufficient detail in systematic reviews and systematic maps, increasing the quality of reporting and conduct [8]. But beyond transparent reporting of methods, an additional problem exists in how reviews are reported and published: that of closed data.

Closed data in evidence syntheses

In a recent article in BMJ, Shokraneh et al. [9] point out that Cochrane does not have an open data policy requiring data extracted during systematic reviews to be made publicly available. Whilst methods in Cochrane reviews are typically reported in sufficient detail, the ‘raw’ data that are extracted from studies to synthesised are not provided. Shokraneh et al. [9] state that whilst results data are made available for Cochrane reviews, these cannot readily be re-used, they may be an incomplete set of study results, the data are not readily extractable/usable, and are only accessible to those with full Cochrane Library access. These issues are equally as important in other fields of evidence synthesis.

The benefits of Open Synthesis

According to Kraker et al. [10] the Open Science movement has four main principles: open methodology, open data, open source and open access (see Box 1). Open Science aims to make all aspects of research accessible, usable, modifiable and sharable by everyone [11].

Systematic reviews can and should embrace Open Science across Kraker et al.’s four dimensions: (1) open methodology—the methods used in systematic reviews should be reported in sufficient detail that all actions taken can be understood, verified and repeated; (2) open data—all data and meta-data (descriptive information) extracted from each included study should be provided in a review (making use of supplementary files where necessary); (3) open source—any code or tools used to prepare or synthesise data should be provided as supplementary information; and (4) open access—publishers of systematic reviews should ensure that all relevant information is made freely accessible, without the need for requests for information being lodged with corresponding authors.

How open are environmental evidence syntheses?

The Collaboration for Environmental Evidence (CEE) appears to have somewhat higher standards than Cochrane in its openness, since all CEE publications are made Open Access. Box 2 outlines the current minimum reporting standards for results of systematic reviews and maps published by CEE. This enforcement includes ‘Data extraction tables’, but exactly what must be reported here is somewhat unclear. Beyond this, the level of openness is relatively minimal, however: both in terms of the results of the reviewing process itself and the data extracted, summarised and analysed from included studies.

Possible barriers to Open Synthesis

Wolfenden et al. [14] summarise a number of potential barriers that might challenge openness in systematic reviews. I provide a list of these and other challenges in Box 3. Generally speaking, these issues either relate to concerns or fears of the review authors, or institutional barriers.

Who pays for Open Synthesis

There are potential implications of Open Synthesis on the cost model of research publication. Traditionally, Open Access publication switches from a reader pays model to an author pays model, although free Open Access publication models also exist [15]. The CEE journal Environmental Evidence charges article processing fees for all protocols and review or map reports published, which are then made Open Access under the Creative Commons Attribution License 4.0. Open Methods and Open Data can be supported through making use of supplementary file publication, either as part of the publication process (i.e. Additional files) or through Open Access repositories for documents and data, such as the Open Science Framework [16], figshare [17], and Dryad [18]. Open Source can be supported by sharing code, either using the aforementioned repositories, or via code repositories such as GitHub [19]. Whilst publication through review endorsing bodies, such as CEE, may incur a publication fee, alternative options for publication exist, but they may not carry the same weight and reliability as publication by a global leading organisation in evidence synthesis (and may also lack rigorous peer-review). Securing affordable and fair (or free) Open Synthesis will thus be a key priority for organisations like CEE in the future.

Ways forward

Most importantly, there must be institutional and behavioural changes in how review authors, editors, peer-reviewers and funders think about transparency and openness. Although organisations such as CEE may aim for true openness (i.e. transparency), there is a lack of appreciation for what this really means. Current standards for reporting and openness (see Box 2) fall short of true openness and do not go far enough to support full access to data from a systematic review. I propose three areas where action is needed to add momentum to the Open Synthesis movement.

  1. 1.

    Awareness and use The systematic review community should become familiar with the Open Science movement and consider using Kraker et al.’s framework [10] as a basis for achieving openness. Where not supported by publishers, systematic review authors can achieve openness by making use of online data repositories, such as the Open Science Framework developed by the Centre for Open Science (https://osf.io). Data and meta-data extracted from systematic reviews can be accompanied by important descriptive information explaining the data in sufficient detail to allow reuse and link the data to the published systematic review.

  2. 2.

    Support Actors working in evidence synthesis methodology can support openness by helping to develop methods and tools for more transparent reporting of methods, data and meta-data using standard and interoperable forms and formats. The establishment and enforcing of ROSES [7] by multiple journals that previously did not use reporting standards has gone some way in increasing open methodology in evidence syntheses, but more work is needed to adapt these forms to the many types of synthesis available. I agree with Shokraneh et al. [9] who state that “Cochrane could act as a hub, harmonising data collected across groups and sharing these widely”, sharing “machine-readable curated data, in archived, citable, accessible, inter-operable and re-usable formats, as set out in the FAIR Principles”. Organisations and networks such as CEE, the Society for Research Synthesis Methods, and the International Collaboration for Automation of Systematic Reviews could work together to develop standardised tools for reporting within systematic review projects in a truly open way.

  3. 3.

    Enforcement CEE and other systematic review coordinating bodies should recognise the importance of Open Science and ensure a minimum level of reporting of meta-data and data extracted from studies in published reviews. In short, all activities and outputs should be reported with a systematic review or map (including usable lists of studies), and all extracted information should be provided in machine-readable formats (i.e. spreadsheets or databases rather than PDFs or documents). Furthermore, efforts to track data reporting practices in primary research (e.g. The Trials Tracker Project [20]) could also be a useful blueprint for those wishing to track Open Synthesis outside the review coordinating bodies. This could perhaps be supported by the establishment of standard templates and worksheets for reporting data in CEE reviews. In the field of healthcare, the Systematic Review Data Repository (SDSR) was established [21] for this purpose, and the extracted data from 1455 reviews has been deposited to date. A similar repository in environmental sciences, or indeed across disciplines would be extremely useful for the review community.

Conclusions

I echo the calls by others [9, 14] to fully embrace open data in systematic reviews. I argue that using an Open Science lens adds a layer of transparency and verifiability, in turn increasing efficiency, trust and accountability, and facilitating reuse of data and analyses. As this is an equal concern to all disciplines, I encourage different evidence synthesis communities to join together to tackle this problem as a key priority for the future of evidence synthesis.