Skip to main content

Advertisement

Log in

Preeclampsia Prevention and Management

  • Review Article
  • Published:
The Journal of the Society for Gynecologic Investigation: JSGI Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Preclampsia is a multisystem disorder specific to pregnancy with a high maternal and perinatal morbidity and mortality. The cause of this disorder is unknown. Preeclampsia likely represents the clinical end point of multiple contributory factors, and it is unlikely that any single cause will be found. The blueprint for the development of preeclampsia is laid down early in pregnancy, and delivery of the fetus and placenta remains the only effective treatment. Efforts to prevent preeclampsia in women at high risk have been largely unsuccessful. Until the pathogenesis of preeclampsia is well defined, it is unlikely that effective preventive strategies will be developed.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  1. Committee on Obstetrics. Hypertension in pregnancy. Washington, DC: American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists Technical Bulletin No. 219. American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists, 1996.

  2. Rochat RW, Koonin LM, Atrash JF, Maternal Mortality Collaborative. Maternal mortality in the United States: Report from the Maternal Morality Collaborative. Obstet Gvnecol 1988;72:91–7.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  3. Koonin LM, Atrash HK, Rochat RW, Smith JC. Maternal mortality surveillance, United States, 1980–1985. MMWR Mor Mortal Wkly Rep CDC Surveill Summ 1988;37:19–29.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  4. Berg CJ, Atrash HK, Koonin LM, Tucker M. Pregnancy-related mortality in the United States, 1987–1990. Obstet Gvnecol 1996;88:161–7.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  5. Lin CC, Lindheimer MD, River P, Moawad AH. Fetal outcome in hypertensive disorders of pregnancy. Am j Obstet Gynecol 1982;142:255–60.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  6. Boyd PA, Lindenbaum RH, Redman CWG. Preeclampsia and trisomy 13: A possible association. Lancet 1987;2:397–9.

    Google Scholar 

  7. Chua S, Redman CWG. Prognosis for pre-eclampsia complicated by 5 g or more of proteinuria in 24 hours. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol 1992;43:9–12.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  8. Odendaal HJ, Pattinson RC, Bam R, Grove D, Kotze TJvW. Aggressive or expectant management for patients with severe preeclampsia between 28–34 weeks’ gestation: A randomized controlled trial. Obstet Gynecol 1990;76:1070–4.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  9. Sibai BM, Mercer BM, Schiff E, Friedman SA. Aggressive versus expectant management of severe preeclampsia at 28 to 32 weeks’ gestation: A randomized controlled trial. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1994;171:818–22.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  10. Goldstein DP, Berkowitz RS. Current management of complete and partial molar pregnancy. J Reprod Med 1994;39:139–46.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  11. Piering WF, Garancis JG, Becker CG, Beres JA, Lemann J. Preeclampsia related to a functioning extrauterine placenta: Report of a case and 25-year follow-up. Am J Kidney Dis 1993;21:310–3.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  12. Aladjem S, Lueck J, Brewer JI. Experimental induction of a toxemia-like syndrome in the pregnant beagle. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1983;145:27–38.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  13. Yallampalli C, Garfield RE. Inhibition of nitric oxide synthesis in rats during pregnancy produces signs similar to those of preeclampsia. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1993;169:1316–20.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  14. Takimoto E, Ishida J, Sugiyama F, Horiguchi H, Murakami K, Fukamizu A. Hypertension induced in pregnant mice by placental renin and maternal angiotensinogen. Science 1996;274:995–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  15. Buhimschi IA, Saade GR, Chwalisz K, Garfield RE. The nitric oxide pathway in pre-eclampsia: Pathophysiological implications. Hum Reprod Update 1998;4:25–42.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  16. Dekker GA, Sibai BM. Etiology and pathogenesis of preeclampsia: Current concepts. Am J Obstet Gvnecol 1998;179:1359–75.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  17. Redman CWG, Sacks GP, Sargent IL. Preeclampsia: An excessive maternal inflammatory response to pregnancy. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1999;180:499–506.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  18. Sibai BM, Ewell M, Levine RJ, for the Calcium for Preeclampsia Prevention (CPEP) Study Group. Risk factors associated with preeclampsia in healthy nulliparous women. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1997;177:1003–10.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  19. Caritis S, Sibai BM, Hauth J, National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Network of Maternal-Fetal Medicine Units. Predictors of pre-eclampsia in women at high risk. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1998;179:946–51.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  20. Norwitz ER, Robinson JN, Repke JT. Prevention of preeclampsia. Is it possible? In: Sibai BM, ed. Clinical obstetrics and gynecology. Philadelphia: Lippincott, Williams & Wilkins, 1999, 42:436–54.

    Google Scholar 

  21. Haig D. Genetic conflicts in human pregnancy. Q Rev Biol 1993;68:495–532.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  22. Alderman BW, Sperling RS, Daling JR. An epidemiological study on the immunogenetic aetiology of pre-eclampsia. BMJ 1986;292:372–4.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  23. Cunningham FG, Leveno KJ. Management of pregnancy-induced hypertension. In: Rubin PC, ed. Handbook of hypertension, Vol X: Hypertension in pregnancy. Amsterdam: Elsevier Science, 1988:290.

    Google Scholar 

  24. Feeney JG, Scott JS. Pre-eclampsia and changed paternity. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol 1980;11:35–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  25. Robillard P-Y, Dekker GA, Hulsey TC. Revisiting the epidemiological standard of preeclampsia: Primigravidity or primipaternity? Eur J Obstet Gynaecol Reprod Biol 1999;84:37–41.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  26. Robillard P-Y, Hulsey TC, Péianin J, Janky E, Miri EH, Papiernik E. Association of pregnancy-induced hypertension with duration of sexual cohabitation before conception. Lancet 1994;344:973–5.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  27. Clark DA. Does immunological intercourse prevent preeclampsia? [commentary]. Lancet 1994;344:969–70.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  28. Klonoff-Cohen HS, Savitz DA, Cefalo RC, McCann MF. An epidemiologic study of contraception and preeclampsia. JAMA 1989;262:3143–7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  29. Chesley LC, Annitto JE, Cosgrove RA. The familial factor in toxemia of pregnancy. Obstet Gynecol 1968;32:303–11.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  30. Chesley LC, Cooper DW. Genetics of hypertension in hypertension: Possible single gene control pre-eclampsia and eclampsia in the descendents of eclamptic women. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1986;93:898–908.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  31. Ward K, Hata A, Jeunemaitre X, et al. A molecular variant of angiotensinogen associated with preeclampsia. Nat Genet 1993;4:59.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  32. Dizon-Townson DS, Nelson LM, Easton K, Ward K. The factor V Leiden mutation may predispose women to severe preeclampsia. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1996;175:902–5.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  33. Wilcken B, Leung KC, Hammond J, Kamath R, Leonard JV. Pregnancy and fetal long-chain 3-hydroxyacyl coenzyme A dehydrogenase deficiency. Lancet 1993;341:407–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  34. Thornton JC, Onwude JL. Preeclampsia: Discordance among identical twins. BMJ 1991;303:1241–2.

    Article  CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  35. Cnattingius S, Mills JL, Yuen J, Eriksson O, Ros HS. The paradoxical effect of smoking in preeclamptic pregnancies: Smoking reduces the incidence but increases the rates of perinatal mortality, abruptio placentae, and intrauterine growth restriction. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1997;177:156–61.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  36. Brosens IA, Robertson WB, Dixon HG. The role of the spiral arteries in the pathogenesis of preeclampsia. Obstet Gynecol Annu 1972;1:177–91.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  37. Cross JC, Werb Z, Fisher SJ. Implantation and the placenta: Key pieces of the development puzzle. Science 1994;266:1508–18.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  38. Pijnenborg R, Robertson WB, Brosens I, Dixon G. Trophoblast invasion and the establishment of hemochorial placentation in man and laboratory animals. Placenta 1981;2:71–92.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  39. Meekins JW, Pijnenborg R, Hanssens M, McFadyen IR, van Assche A. As study of placental bed spiral arteries and trophoblast invasion in normal and severe pre-eclamptic pregnancies. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1994;101:669–74.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  40. Zhou Y, Damsky CH, Chiu K, Roberts JM, Fisher SJ. Preeclampsia is associated with abnormal expression of adhesion molecules by invasive cytotrophoblasts. J Clin Invest 1993;91:950–60.

    Article  CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  41. Zhou Y, Damsky CH, Fisher SJ. Preeclampsia is associated with a failure of human cytotrophoblasts to mimic a vascular adhesion phenotype. One cause of defective invasion in this syndrome? J Clin Invest 1997;99:2152–64.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  42. Roberts JM, Edep ME, Goldfein A, Taylor RN. Sera from preeclamptic women specifically activate umbilical vein endothelial cells in vitro. Am J Reprod Immunol 1992;27:101–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  43. Taylor RN, Crumbleholme WR, Friedman SA, Jones LA, Casal DC, Roberts JM. High plasma cellular fibronectin levels correlate with biochemical features of preeclampsia but cannot be attributed to hypertension alone. Am J Obstet Gvnecol 1991;165:895–901.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  44. Gaber LW, Spargo BH, Lindheimer MD. Renal pathology in pre-eclampsia. Baillieres Clin Obstet Gynaecol 1994;8:443–68.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  45. Rolfes DB, Ishak KG. Liver diseases in toxemia of pregnancy. Am J Gastroenterol 1986;81:1138–44.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  46. Meekins JW, Pijnenborg R, Hanssens M, van Assche A, Mc-Fadyen IR. Immunohistochcmical detection of lipoprotein(a) in the wall of placental bed spiral arteries in normal and severe pre-eclamptic pregnancies. Placenta 1994;15:511–24.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  47. Salafia CM, Pezzullo JC, Ghidini A, Lopez-Zeno JA, Whittington SS. Clinical correlations of patterns of placental pathology in preterm pre-eclampsia. Placenta 1998;19:67–72.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  48. De Wolf F, Robertson WB, Brosens I. The ultrastructure of acute atherosis in hypertensive pregnancy. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1975;123:164–74.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  49. Holzgreve W, Ghezzi F, Di Naro E, Gänshirt D, Maymon E, Hahn S. Disturbed feto-maternal cell traffic in preeclampsia. Obstet Gynecol 1998;91:669–72.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  50. Knight M, Redman CE, Linton EA, Sargent IL. Shedding of syncytiotrophoblast microvilli into the maternal circulation in pre-eclamptic pregnancies. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1998;105:632–40.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  51. Gant NF, Daley GL, Chand S, Whalley PJ, MacDonald PC. A study of angiotensin II pressor response throughout primigravid pregnancy. J Clin Invest 1973;52:2682–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  52. Dekker GA, Makovitz JW, Wallenburg HCS. Comparison of prediction of pregnancy-induced hypertensive disease by angiotensin II sensitivity and supine pressor test. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1990;97:817–21.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  53. Tomoda S, Kitanaka T, Ogita S, Hidaka A. Prediction of pregnancy-induced hypertension by isometric exercise. Asia Oceania J Obstet Gynaecol 1994;20:249–55.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  54. Gant NF, Chand S, Worley RJ, Whalley PJ, Crosby UD, MacDonald PC. A clinical test useful for predicting the development of acute hypertension in pregnancy. Am J Obstet Gvnecol 1974;120:1–6.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  55. Harrington K, Cooper D, Lees C, Hecher K, Campbell S. Doppler ultrasound of the uterine arteries: The importance of bilateral notching in the prediction of pre-eclampsia, placental abruption or delivery of a small for gestational age baby. Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol 1996;7:182–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  56. Irion O, Masse J, Forest JC, Moutquin JM. Prediction of pre-eclampsia, low birthweight for gestation and prematurity by uterine artery blood flow velocity waveforms analysis in low risk nulliparous women. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1998;105:422–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  57. Campbell S, Pearce JMF, Hackett G, Cohen-Overbeek T, Hernandez C. Qualitative assessment of uteroplacental blood flow: Early screening test for high-risk pregnancies. Obstet Gynecol 1986;68:649–53.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  58. Arduini D, Rizzo G, Romanini C, Mancuso S. Uteroplacental blood flow velocity waveforms as predictors of pregnancy-induced hypertension. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol 1987;26:335–41.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  59. Roberts JM, Taylor RN, Musci TJ, Rodgers GM, Hubel CA, McLaughlin MK. Preeclampsia: An endothelial cell disorder. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1989;161:1200–4.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  60. Branch DW, Dudley DJ, La Marche S, Mitchell MD. Sera from pre-eclamptic women contains factor(s) that stimulate prostacyclin production by human endothelial cells. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids 1992;45:191–5.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  61. Baker PN, Davidge ST, Roberts JM. Plasma from women with pre-eclampsia increases endothelial cell nitric oxide production. Hypertension 1995;26:244–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  62. Davidge ST, Signorella AP, Lykins DL, Gilmour CH, Roberts JM. Evidence of endothelial activation and endothelial activators in cord blood of infants of preeclamptic women. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1996;175:1301–6.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  63. Endresen Mj, Tosti E, Heimli H, Lorentzen B, Henriksen T. Effects of fatty acids found increased in women who develop pre-eclampsia on the ability of endothelial cells to produce prostacyclin, cGMP and inhibit platelet aggregation. Scand J Clin Lab Invest 1994;54:549–57.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  64. Hubel CA, McLaughlin MK, Evans RW, Hauth BA, Sims CJ, Roberts JM. Fasting serum triglycerides, free fatty acids, and malondialdehyde are increased in preeclampsia, are positively correlated, and decrease within 48 hours post partum. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1996;174:975–82.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  65. Vince GS, Starkey PM, Austgulen R, Kwiatkowski D, Redman CWG. Interleukin-6, tumour necrosis factor and soluble tumour necrosis receptors in women with pre-eclampsia. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1995;102:20–5.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  66. de Jager CA, Shepard EG, Robson SC, et al. Degradation of fibronectin in association with vascular endothelial disruption in preeclampsia. J Lab Clin Med 1995;125:522–30.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  67. Smarason AK, Sargent IL, Starkey PM, Redman CWG. The effect of placental syncytiotrophoblast microvillous membranes from normal and preeclamptic women on the growth of endothelial cells in vitro. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1993;100:943–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  68. Broughton Pipkin F, Hunter JC, Turner SR, O’Brien PM. Prostaglandin E2 attenuates the pressor response to angiotensin II in pregnant subjects but not in nonpregnant subjects. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1982;142:168–76.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  69. Friedman SA. Preeclampsia: A review of the role for prostaglandins. Obstet Gynecol 1988;71:122–37.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  70. Lorentzen B, Endresen MJ, Clausen T, Hendriksen T. Fasting serum free fatty acids and triglycerides are increased before 20 weeks of gestation in women who later develop preeclampsia. Hypertens Pregn 1994;13:103–9.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  71. Endresen MJ, Lorentzen B, Hendriksen T. Increased lipolytic activity and high ratio of free fatty acids to albumin in sera from women with preeclampsia leads to triglyceride accumulation in cultured endothelial cells. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1992;167:440–7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  72. Sattar N, Gaw A, Packard CJ, Greer IA. Potential pathogenic roles of aberrant lipoprotein and fatty acid metabolism in preeclampsia. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1996;103:614–20.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  73. Sibai BM. Treatment of hypertension in pregnant women. N Engl J Med 1996;335:257–65.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  74. Lindenstrom E, Boysen G, Nyboe J. Influence of systolic and diastolic blood pressures on stroke risk: A prospective observational study. Am J Epidemiol 1995;142:1279–90.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  75. Lazard EM. A preliminary report on the intravenous use of magnesium sulfate in puerperal eclampsia. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1925;9:178–88.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  76. Eclampsia Trial Collaborative Group. Which anticonvulsant for women with eclampsia? Evidence from the Collaborative Eclampsia Trial. Lancet 1995;345:1455–63.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  77. Bhalla AK, Dhall GI, Dhall K. A safer and more effective treatment regimen for eclampsia. Aust N Z J Obstet Gynecol 1994;34:144–8.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  78. Dommisse J. Phenytoin sodium and magnesium sulfate in the management of eclampsia. Br J Obstet Gynecol 1990;97:104–9.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  79. Crowthcr C. Magnesium sulfate versus diazepam in the management of eclampsia: A randomized controlled trial. Br J Obstet Gynecol 1990;97:110–7.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  80. Witlin AG, Sibai BM. Magnesium sulfate therapy in preeclampsia and eclampsia. Obstet Gynecol 1998;92:883–9.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  81. Lucas MJ, Leveno KJ, Cunningham FG. A comparison of magnesium sulfate with phenytoin for the prevention of eclampsia. N Engl J Med 1995;333:201–5.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  82. Coetzee EJ, Dommisse J, Anthony J. A randomized controlled trial of intravenous magnesium sulfate versus placebo in the management of women with severe preeclampsia. Br J Obstet Gynecol 1998;105:300–3.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  83. Friedman SA, Lim KH, Baker CA, Repke JT. Phenytoin versus magnesium sulfate in preeclampsia: A pilot study. Am J Perinatol 1993;10:233–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  84. Chen F, Chang S, Chu K. Expectant management in severe preeclampsia: Does magnesium sulfate prevent the development of eclampsia? Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand 1995;74:181–5.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  85. Belfort MA, Moise KJ. Effect of magnesium sulfate on maternal brain flow in preeclampsia: A randomized, placebo-controlled study. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1992;167:661–6.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  86. Naidu S, Payne AJ, Moodley J, Hoffman M, Gouws E. Randomised study assessing the effect of phenytoin and magnesium sulfate on maternal cerebral circulation in eclampsia using transcranial Doppler ultrasound. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1996;103:111–6.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  87. Higby K, Xenakis E, Pauerstein C. Do tocolytic agents stop preterm labor? A critical and comprehensive review of efficacy and safety. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1993;168:1247–59.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  88. Cotton DB, Hallak M, janusz C, Irtenkauf SM, Berman RF. Central anticonvulsant effects of magnesium sulfate on N-methyl-D-aspartatc-induced seizures. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1993;168:974–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  89. Witlin AG, Friedman SA, Sibai BM. The effect of magnesium sulfate therapy on the duration of labor in women with mild preeclampsia at term: A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Am j Obstet Gynecol 1997;176:623–7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  90. Crowther C, Chalmers I. Bed rest and hospitalization during pregnancy. In: Chalmers I, Enkin M, Keirse MJN, eds. Effective care in pregnancy and childbirth. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989:624–32.

    Google Scholar 

  91. Steegers EA, Eskes TK, Jongsma HW, Hein PR. Dietary sodium restriction during pregnancy: A historical review. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol 1991;40:83–90.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  92. Gratacos E, Casals E, Sanllehy C, Cararach V, Alonso PL, Fortuny A. Variation in lipid levels during pregnancy in women with different types of hypertension. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand 1996;75:896–901.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  93. Hubel CA, McLaughlin MK, Evans RW, Hauth BA, Sims CJ, Roberts JM. Fasting serum triglycerides, free fatty- acids, and malondialdehyde are increased in preeclampsia, are positively correlated, and decrease within 48 hours post partum. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1996;174:975–82.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  94. Mikhail MS, Anyaegbunam A, Garfinkel D, Palan PR, Basu J, Romney SL. Preeclampsia and antioxidant nutrients: Decreased plasma levels of reduced ascorbic acid, alpha-tocopherol, and beta-carotene in women with preeclampsia. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1994;171:150–7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  95. Schiff E, Friedman SA, Stampfer M, Kao L, Barrett PH, Sibai BM. Dietary consumption and plasma concentrations of vitamin E in pregnancies complicated by preeclampsia. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1996;175:1024–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  96. Olsen SF, Secher NJ. A possible preventive effect of low-dose fish oil on early delivery and pre-eclampsia: Indications for a 50-year-old controlled trial. Br J Nutr 1990;64:599–609.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  97. Adair CD, Sanchez-Ramos L, Briones DL, Ogburn P Jr. The effect of high dietary n-3 fatty acid supplementation on angiotensin II pressor response in human pregnancy. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1996;175:688–91.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  98. Laivuori H, Hovatta O, Viinikka L, Ylikorkala O. Dietary supplementation with primrose oil or fish oil does not change urinary excretion of prostacyclin and thromboxane metabolites in pre-eclamptic women. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids 1993;49:691–4.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  99. Salvig JD, Olsen SF, Secher NJ. Effects of fish oil supplementation in late pregnancy on blood pressure: A randomized controlled trials. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1996;103:529–33.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  100. Onwude JL, Lilford RJ, Hjartardottier H, Staines A, Tuffnell D. A randomised double-blind placebo controlled trial of fish oil in high risk pregnancy. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1995;109:95–100.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  101. Lazebnik N, Kuhnert BR, Kuhnert PM. Zinc, cadmium, and hypertension in parturient women. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1989;161:437–40.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  102. Mohamed K, James DK, Golding J, McCabe R. Zinc supplementation during pregnancy: A double blind randomized clinical trial. BMJ 1989;299:826–30.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  103. Jonsson B, Hauge B, Larsen NF, Hald F. Zinc supplementation during pregnancy: A double blind randomized clinical trial. Acta Obstet Gynaecol Scand 1996;75:725–9.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  104. Sibai BM, Villar MA, Bray E. Magnesium supplementation during pregnancy: A double blind randomized controlled clinical trial. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1989;161:115–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  105. Han L, Zhou SM. Selenium supplement in the prevention of pregnancy-induced hypertension. Chin Med J 1994;107:870–1.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  106. Lamm CI, Norton KI, Murphy RJ, Wilkins IA, Rabinowitz JG. Congenital rickets associated with magnesium sulfate infusion for tocolysis. J Pediatr 1988;113:1078–82.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  107. Belizan JM, Villar J, Repke JT. The relationship between calcium intake and pregnancy-induce hypertension: Up-to-date evidence. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1988;158:898–902.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  108. Seely EW, Wood RJ, Brown EM, Graves SW. Lower serum ionized calcium and abnonnal calciotropic hormone levels in preeclampsia. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1992;74:1436–40.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  109. Conde-Agudelo A, Lede R, Belizan J. Evaluation of methods used in the prediction of hypertensive disorders of pregnancy. Obstet Gynecol Surv 1994;49:210–22.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  110. Hatton DC, McCarron DA. Dietary calcium and blood pressure in experimental models of hypertension. Hypertension 1994;23:513–30.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  111. Kawasaki N, Matsui K, Masaharu I, Nakamura T, Yoshimura T, Hidetaka U. Effect of calcium supplementation on the vascular sensitivity to angiotensin II in pregnant women. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1985;153:576–82.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  112. Marya RK, Rathee S, Manrow M. Effect of calcium and vitamin D supplementation on toxemia of pregnancy. Gynecol Obstet Invest 1987;24:38–42.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  113. Villar J, Repke JT, Belizan JM, Pareja G. Calcium supplementation reduces blood pressure during pregnancy: Results of a randomized controlled clinical trial. Obstet Gvnecol 1987;70:317–22.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  114. Lopez-Jaramillo P, Narvaez M, Weigel RM, Yepez R. Calcium supplementation reduces the risk of pregnancy-induced hypertension in an Andes population. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1989;96:648–55.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  115. Lopez-Jaramillo P, Narvaez M, Felix C, Lopez A. Dietary calcium supplementation and prevention of pregnancy hypertension. Lancet 1990;335:293.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  116. Villar J, Repke JT. Calcium supplementation during pregnancy may reduce preterm delivery in high-risk populations. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1990;163:124–31.

    Google Scholar 

  117. Belizan JM, Villar J, Gonzalez L, Campodonico L, Bergel E. Calcium supplementation to prevent hypertensive disorders of pregnancy. N Engl J Med 1991;325:1399–1405.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  118. Cong KJ, Chi SL, Liu CR. Calcium and pregnancy induced hypertension. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1993;28:1–10.

    Google Scholar 

  119. Ito M, Koyama H, Ohshige A, Maeda T, Yoshimura T, Okamura H. Prevention of preeclampsia with calcium supplementation and vitamin D3 in an antenatal protocol. Int J Gynaecol Obstet 1994;47:115–20.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  120. Sanchez-Ramos L, Briones DK, Kaunitz AM, et al. Prevention of pregnancy-induced hypertension by calcium supplementation in angiotensin II-sensitive patients. Obstet Gynecol 1994–84:349–53.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  121. Purwar M, Kulkarni H, Motghare V, et al. Calcium supplementation and prevention of pregnancy induced hypertension. J Obstet Gynaecol Res 1996;22:425–30.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  122. Lopez-Jaramillo P, Delgado F, Jacome P, et al. Calcium supplementation and the risk of preeclampsia in Ecuadorian pregnant teenagers. Obstet Gynecol 1997;90:162–7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  123. Levine RJ, Hauth JC, Curt LB, et al. Trial of calcium to prevent preeclampsia. N Engl J Med 1997;337:69–76.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  124. Herrera JA, Arevalo-Herrera M, Herrera S. Prevention of preeclampsia by linoleic acid and calcium supplementation: A randomized controlled trial. Obstet Gynecol 1998;91:585–90.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  125. Crowther CA, Hillier JE, Pridmore B, Bryce R, Duggan P, Hague WM, Robinson JS. Calcium supplementation in nulliparous women for the prevention of pregnancy-induced hypertension, preeclampsia, and preterm birth: An Australian randomized trial. FRACOG and the ACT Study Group. Aust N Z J Obstet Gynaecol 1999;39:12–8.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  126. Carroli G, Duley L, Belzian JM, Villar J. Calcium supplementation during pregnancy: A systematic review of randomized controlled trials. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1994;101:753–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  127. Bucher H, Guyatt GH, Cook RJ, et al. Effect of calcium supplementation on pregnancy-induced hypertension and preeclampsia: A meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials JAMA 1996;275:1113–7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  128. Levine RJ, Esterlitz JR, Raymond EG, et al. Trial of Calcium for Preeclampsia Prevention (CPEP): Rationale, design, and methods. Control Clin Trials 1996;17:442–69.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  129. Levine RJ, DerSimonian R. Effects of calcium supplementation on pregnancy-induced hypertension. JAMA 1996;276:1387.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  130. Richardson BE, Baird DD. A study of milk and calcium supplement intake and subsequent preeclampsia in a cohort of pregnant women. Am J Epidemiol 1995;141:667–73.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  131. Appel LJ, Moore TJ, Obarzanek E, et al. A clinical trial of the effects of dietary patterns on blood pressure. N Engl I Med 1997;336:1117–24.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  132. Collins R, Yusuf S, Peto R. Overview of randomised trials of diuretics in pregnancy. BMJ 1985;290:17–23.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  133. Wang Y, Walsh SW. Aspirin inhibits both lipid peroxides and thromboxane in preeclamptic placentas. Free Radic Biol Med 1995;18:585–91.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  134. Beaufils M, Uzan S, Donsimoni R, Colau JC. Prevention of pre-eclampsia by early antiplatelet therapv. Lancet 1985;i:840–2.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  135. Wallenburg HCS, Dekker GA, Makovitz JW, Rotmans P. Low-dose aspirin prevents pregnancy-induced hypertension and pre-eclampsia in angiotensin-sensitive Primigravidae. Lancet 1986;i:1–3.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  136. Schiff E, Peleg E, Goldenberg M, et al. The use of aspirin to prevent pregnancy-induced hypertension and lower the ratio of thromboxane A2 to prostacyclin in relatively high risk pregnancies. N Engl J Med 1989;321:351–6.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  137. Benigni A, Gregorini G, Frusca T, et al. Effect of low dose aspirin on fetal and maternal generation of thromboxane by platelets in women at risk for pregnancy-induced hypertension N Engl J Med 1989;321:357–62.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  138. McParland P, Pearce JM, Chamberlain GVP. Doppler ultrasound and aspirin in recognition and prevention of pregnancy-induced hypertension. Lancet 1990;335:1552–5.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  139. Uzan S, Beaufils M, Breart G, Bazin B, Capitant C, Paris J. Prevention of fetal growth retardation with low-dose aspirin: Findings of the EPRENA trial. Lancet 1991;337:1427–31.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  140. Hauth JC, Goldenberg RL, Parker CR Jr, et al. Low-dose aspirin therapy to prevent preeclampsia. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1993;168:1083–93.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  141. Imperiale TF, Petrulis AS. A meta-analysis of low-dose aspirin for the prevention of pregnancy-induced hypertensive disease JAMA 1991;266:261–4.

    Google Scholar 

  142. Dekker GA, Sibai BM. Low-dose aspirin: The prevention of preeclampsia and fetal growth retardation: Rationale, mechanisms, and clinical trials. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1993;168:214–27.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  143. Viinikka L, Hartikainen-Sorri AL, Lumme R, Hiilesmaa V, Ylikorkala O. Low dose aspirin in hypertensive pregnant women: Effect on pregnancy outcome and prostacyclin-thromboxane balance in mother and newborn. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1993;100:809–15.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  144. Italian Study of Aspirin in Pregnancy. Low-dose aspirin in prevention and treatment of intrauterine growth retardation and pregnancy-induced hypertension. Lancet 1993;341:396–400.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  145. Sibai BM, Caritis SN, Thorn E, et al. Prevention of preeclampsia with low-dose aspirin in healthy, nulliparous pregnant women. N Engl J Med 1993;329:1213–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  146. CLASP (Collaborative Low-dose Aspirin Study in Pregnancy) Collaborative Group. CLASP: A randomised trial of low-dose aspirin for the prevention and treatment of pre-eclampsia among 9364 pregnant women. Lancet 1994;343:619–29.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  147. Wang Z, Li W. A prospective randomized placebo-controlled trial of low-dose aspirin for prevention of intra-uterine growth retardation. Chin Med J Engl 1996;109:238–42.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  148. ECPPA (Estudo Colaborativo para Prevencao de Pre-eclampsia com Aspirina) Collaborative Group. ECPPA: Randomised trial of low dose aspirin for the prevention of maternal and fetal complications in high risk pregnant women. Br J Obstet Gvnaecol 1996;103:39–47.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  149. Golding J, Jamaica Low Dose Aspirin Study Group. A randomised trial of low dose aspirin for primiparae in pregnancy. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1998;105:293–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  150. Rotchell YE, Cruickshank JK, Phillips-Gay M, et al. Barbados Low-Dose Aspirin Study in Pregnancy (BLASP): A randomised trial for the prevention of pre-eclampsia and its complications. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1998;105:286–92.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  151. Byaruhanga RN, Chipato T, Rusakaniko S. A randomized controlled trial of low-dose aspirin in women at risk from pre-eclampsia. Int J Gynaecol Obstet 1998;60:129–35.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  152. Caritis S, Sibai BM, Hauth J, et al. Low-dose aspirin to prevent preeclampsia in women at high risk. N Engl J Med 1998;338:701–5.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  153. Hermida C, Ayala DE, Iglesias M, et al. Time-dependent effects of low-dose aspirin administration on blood pressure in pregnant women. Hypertension 1997;30:589–95.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  154. Brenner B, Shapira A, Bahari C, Haimovich L, Seligsohn U. Hereditary protein C deficiency during pregnancy. Am j Obstet Gynecol 1987;157:1160–1.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  155. Howie PW, Prentice CR, Forbes CD. Failure of heparin therapy to affect the clinical course of severe pre-eclampsia. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1975;82:711–7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  156. North RA, Ferner C, Gamble G, et al. Prevention of preeclampsia with heparin and antiplatelet drugs in women with renal disease. Aust N Z J Obstet Gynaecol 1995;35:357–62.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  157. Riyazi N, Leeda M, de Vries JI, Huijgens PC, van Geijn HP, Dekker GA. Low-molecular-weight heparin combined with aspirin in pregnant women with thrombophilia and a history of preeclampsia or fetal growth restriction: A preliminary study. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol 1998;80:49–54.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  158. Nobunaga T, Tokugawa Y, Hashimoto K, et al. Plasma nitric oxide levels in pregnant patients with preeclampsia and essential hypertension. Gynecol Obstet Invest 1996;41:189–93.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  159. Oyelese KO, Black RS, Lees CC, Campbell S. A novel approach to the management of pregnancies complicated by uteroplacental insufficiency and previous stillbirth. Aust N Z J Obstet Gynaecol 1998;38:391–5.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  160. Seki H, Kuromaki K, Takeda S, Kinoshita K, Satoh K. The possibility of clinical application of the thromboxane A2 synthase inhibitor, ozagrel, for the treatment and prevention of preeclampsia: A preliminary report. J Obstet Gvnaecol 1995;21:357–65.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  161. Nieder J, Claus P, Augustin W. Untersuchungen uber den einfluss von trapidil zur pravention von Praeklampsie und fetaler retardierung [Effect of trapidil in prevention of pre-eclampsia and fetal growth retardation]. Zentralbl Gynakol 1995;117:23–8.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  162. Steyn DW, Odendaal HJ. Randomised controlled trial of ketanserin and aspirin in prevention of pre-eclampsia. Lancet 1997;350:1267–71.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Errol R. Norwitz MD, PhD.

Additional information

Supported in part by the Reproductive Scientist Development Program through National Institutes of Health grant no. 5K12-HD00849 and the Association of Professors of Obstetrics and Gynecology (to ERN).

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Norwitz, E.R., Repke, J.T. Preeclampsia Prevention and Management. Reprod. Sci. 7, 21–36 (2000). https://doi.org/10.1177/107155760000700105

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/107155760000700105

Key words

Navigation