Abstract
Physical load increases sympathetic nervous activity, which results in an increased cardiac output, constriction of peripheral vessels, and elevated systemic blood pressure. These changes are outcomes of two mechanisms: the central command from cerebral structures that trigger voluntary movements to activate the vasomotor center and the reflexes initiated by mechanical and metabolic changes in a working muscle. The latter mechanism of the sympathetic system activation is termed ergoreflex. The main effects of ergoreflex on the indices of systemic hemodynamics are the following: activation of mechanosensitive afferents mainly leads to inhibition of the tonic vagal effects on the heart, which explains the rapid increase in heartbeats upon loading; activation of chemosensitive afferents comes with some delay in pace with metabolite accumulation in muscles and leads to an increase in efferent sympathetic activity and a rise in blood pressure. The metabolic reflex effect is particularly high in the case of muscle fatigue. This review deals with the mechanisms underlying the ergoreflex and their adaptation to hypodynamia, physical training, and some pathologies.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Vinogradova, O.L., Stoida, Yu.M., and Mano, T., et al., The Effect of Gravitation Unloading on Blood Supply to Functioning Muscles, Aviakosm. Ekol. Med., 2002, vol. 36, no. 3, p. 39.
Machkov, V.V., Tarasova, O.S., Timin, E.N., et al., Attenuation of the Efficiency of Vasoconstrictory Effects in Rats after a 3-week vyveshivaniya, Aviakosm. Ekol. Med., 1997, vol. 31, no. 6, p. 43.
Netreba, A.I., Popov, D.V., Lyubaeva, E.V., et al., Physiological Effects of Use of Low-Intensity Strength Training without Relaxation in One-Jointed and Many-Jointed Movements, Ros. Fiziol. Zh.. im. I.M. Sechenova, 2007, vol. 93,issue 1, p. 27.
Popov, D.V., Tsvirkun, D.V., Netreba, A.I., et al., Hormonal Adaptation Determining the Increase in Muscle Mass and Strength during Low-Intensity Strength Training without Relaxation, Hum. Physiol., 2006, vol. 32, no. 5, p. 609.
Seluyanov, V.N., Podgotovka beguna na srednie distantsii (Training Short-Distance Runners), Moscow, 2001.
Alam, M. and Smirk, F., Observations in Man Upon a Blood Pressure Rising Reflex Arising from the Voluntary Muscles, J. Physiol., 1937, vol. 89, p. 372.
Buckwalter, J.B., Mueller, P.J., and Clifford, P.S., Alpha1-Adrenergic-Receptor Responsiveness in Skeletal Muscle during Dynamic Exercise, J. Appl. Physiol., 1998, vol. 85, no. 6, p. 2277.
Clark, A.L., Poole-Wilson, P.A., and Coats, A.J., Exercise Limitation in Chronic Heart Failure: Central Role of the Periphery, J. Am. Coll. Cardiol., 1996, vol. 28, p. 1092.
Davies, C. and Starkie, D., The Pressor Response to Voluntary and Electrically Evoked Isometric Contractions in Man, Eur. J. Appl. Physiol., 1985, vol. 53, p. 359.
Edgerton, V.R. and Roy, R.R., Neuromuscular Adaptations to Actual and Simulated Spaceflight, Handbook of Physiology. Environmental Physiology. The Gravitational Environment, Bethesda: Am. Physiol. Soc., 1996.
Fisher, J.P., Bell, M.P., and White, M.J., Cardiovascular Responses to Human Calf Mucle Stretch during Varying Levels of Muscle Metaboreflex Activation, Exp. Physiol., 2005, vol. 90, p. 773.
Fu, Q., Levine, B., and Pawelczyk, J., Cardiovascular and Sympathetic Neural Responses to Handgrip and Cold Pressor Stimuli in Humans Before, during and after Spaceflight, J. Physiol., 2002, vol. 544, no. 2, p. 635.
Gao, Z., Henig, O., Hekoe, V., et al., Vanilloid Type 1 Receptor and the Acid-Sensing Ion Channel Mediate Acid Phosphate Activation of Muscle Afferent Nerves in Rats, J. Appl. Physiol., 2006, vol. 100, no. 2, p. 421.
Gladwell, V.F. and Coote, J.H., Heart Rate at the Onset of Muscle Contraction and during Passive Muscle Stretch in Humans: A Role for Mechanoreceptors, J. Physiol., 2002, vol. 540, p. 1095.
Goldspink, G., Mechanical Signals, IGF-I Gene Splicing, and Muscle Adaptation, Physiology (Bethesda), 2005, vol. 20, p. 232.
Hanna, R.L. and Kaufman M.P. Role Played by Purinergic Receptors on Muscle Afferents in Evoking the Exercise Pressor Reflex, J. Appl. Physiol., 2003, vol. 94, p. 1437.
Hanna, R.L. and Kaufman, M.P., Activation of Thin-Fiber Muscle Afferents by a P2X Agonist in Cats, J. Appl. Physiol., 2004, vol. 96, p. 1166.
Herr, M., Imadojemu, V., Kunselman, A., et al., Characteristics of the Muscle Mechanoreflex during Quadriceps Contractions in Humans, J. Appl. Physiol., 1999, vol. 86, p. 767.
Ichinose, M. and Nishiyasu, T., Muscle Metaboreflex Modulates the Arterial Baroreflex Dynamic Effects on Peripheral Vascular Conductance in Humans, Am. J. Physiol. Heart. Circ. Physiol., 2005, vol. 288, no. 4, p. 1532.
Immke, D.C. and McCleskey, E.W., Lactate Enhances the Acid-Sensing Na+ Channel on Ischemia-Sensing Neurons, Nat. Neurosci., 2001, vol. 4, no. 9, p. 869.
Iwase, S., Sugiyama, Y., Miwa, C., et al., Effects of Three Days of Dry Immersion on Muscle Sympathetic Nerve Activity and Arterial Blood Pressure in Humans, J. Auton. Nerv. Syst., 2000, vol. 79, p. 156.
Kamiya, A., Iwase, S., Kitazawa, H., et al., Effects of 120 Days of 6o Head-Down Bed Rest on Autonomic Regulation of Cardiovascular Functions, Kosm. Biol. Aviakosm. Med., 1998, vol. 2, p. 373.
Kamiya, A., Iwase, S., Ktiazawa, H., et al., Baroreflex Control of Muscle Sympathetic Nerve Activity After 120 Days of 6o Head-Down Bed Rest, Am. J. Physiol. Regul. Integr. Comp. Physiol., 2000, vol. 278, no. 2, p. 445.
Kamiya, A., Michikami, D., Shiozawa, T., et al., Bed Rest Attenuates Sympathetic and Pressor Responses to Isometric Exercise in Antigravity Leg Muscles in Humans, Am. J. Physiol. Regul. Integr. Comp. Physiol., 2004, vol. 286, p. 844.
Kao, F.F., An Experimental Study of the Pathways Involved in Exercise Hyperpnea Employing Cross-Circulation Techniques, in The Regulation of Human Respiration, Cunningham, D.C., and Lloyd, B.B., Eds., Oxford: Blackwell, 1963.
Kaufman, M.P., Longhurst, J.C., Rybicki, K.J., et al., Effects of Static Muscular Contraction on Impulse Activity of Group III and IV Afferents in Cats, J. Appl. Physiol., 1983, vol. 55, p. 105.
Kaufman, M.P., Rybicki, K.J., Waldrop, T.G., et al., Effect of Ischemia on Responses of Group III and IV Afferents to Contraction, J. Appl. Physiol., 1984, vol. 57, p. 644.
Lazarowski, E., Richard, C., Boucher, R., et al., Mechanisms of Release of Nucleotides and Integration of Their Action as P2X- and P2Y-Receptor Activating Molecules, Mol. Pharmacol., 2003, vol. 64, p. 785.
Li, J. and Sinoway, L.I., ATP Stimulates Chemically Sensitive and Sensitizes Mechanically Sensitive Afferents, Am. J. Physiol. Heart. Circ. Physiol., 2002, vol. 283, p. 2636.
Li, J., King, N.C., and Sinoway, L.I., ATP Concentrations and Muscle Tension Increase Linearly with Muscle Contraction, J. Appl. Physiol., 2003, vol. 95, p. 577.
Li, J., Maile, M., Sinoway, A., et al., Muscle Pressor Reflex: Potential Role of Vanilloid Type 1 Receptor and Acid-Sensing Ion Channel, J. Appl. Physiol., 2004, vol. 97, p. 1709.
Li, J., King, N., and Sinoway, L., Interstitial ATP and NE Concentrations in Active Muscle, Circulation, 2005, vol. 111, no. 21, p. 2748.
MacLean, D.A., Imadojemu, V.A., and Sinoway, L.I., Interstitial PH, K+, Lactate and Phosphate Determined with MSNA during Exercise in Humans, Am. J. Physiol. Regul. Integr. Comp. Physiol., 2000, vol. 278, p. 563.
Mark, A.L., Victor, R.G., Nerhed, C., et al., Microneurographic Studies of the Mechanisms of Sympathetic Nerve Responses to Static Exercise in Humans, Circ. Res., 1985, vol. 57, p. 461.
McClain, J., Hardy, C., Enders, B., et al., Limb Congestion and Sympathoexcitation During Exercise: Implications for Congestive Heart Failure, J. Clin. Invest., 1993, vol. 92, p. 2353.
McCloskey, D.I. and Mitchell, J.H., Reflex Cardiovascular and Respiratory Responses Originating in Exercising Muscle, J. Physiol., 1972, vol. 224, p. 173.
Mitchell, J.H., Kaufmann, M.P., and Iwamoto, G.A., The Exercise Pressor Reflex: Its Cardiovascular Effects, Afferent Mechanisms, and Central Pathways, Annu. Rev. Physiol., 1983, vol. 45, p. 229.
Mostoufi-Moab, S., Widmaier, E.J., Cornett, J.A., et al., Forearm Training Reduces the Exercise Pressor Reflex during Ischemic Rhythmic Handgrip, J. Appl. Physiol., 1998, vol. 84, p. 277.
Nakagawa, H. and Hiura, A., Capsaicin, Transient Receptor Potential (TRP) Protein Subfamilies and the Particular Relationship between Capsacin Receptors and Small Primary Sensory Neurons, Anat. Sci. Int., 2006, vol. 81, no. 3, p. 135.
O’Leary, D.S., Robinson, E.D., and Butler J.L. Is Active Skeletal Muscle Functionally Vasoconstricted during Dynamic Exercise in Conscious Dogs?, Am. J. Physiol., 1997, vol. 272, p. 386.
Ratevic, V. and Burnstock, G., Receptors for Purines and Pyrimidines, Pharmacol. Rev., 1998, vol. 50, p. 413.
Rotto, D.M. and Kaufman, M.P., Effect of Metabolic Products of Muscular Contraction on Discharge of Group III and IV Afferents, J. Appl. Physiol., 1988, vol. 64, no. 6, p. 2306.
Rotto, D.M., Stebbins, C.L., and Kaufman, M.P. Reflex Cardiovascular and Ventilatory Responses to Increasing H+ Activity in Cat Hindlimb Muscle, J. Appl. Physiol., 1989, vol. 67, no. 1, p. 256.
Rowell, L.B. and O’Leary, D.S., Reflex Control of the Circulation during Exercise: Chemoreflexes and Mechanoreflexes, J. Appl. Physiol., 1990, vol. 69, p. 407.
Rowell, L.B., Central Circulatory Adjustments to Dynamic Exercise, Hum. Cardiovasc. Control, 1993, vol. 7, p. 255.
Rybicki, K.J., Kaufman, M.P., and Waidrop, T.G., Increasing Gracilis Muscle Interstitial Potassium Concentrations Stimulate Group III and IV Afferents, J. Appl. Physiol., 1985, vol. 58, no. 3, p. 936.
Saltin, B. and Gollnick, P.D., Skeletal Muscle Adaptability: Significance for Metabolisms and Performance, Handbook Physiol., 1983, vol. 10, no. 19, p. 555.
Scott, A.C., Wensel, R., Davos, C.H., et al., Skeletal Muscle Reflex in Heart Failure Patients: Role of Hydrogen, Circulation, 2003, vol. 107, p. 300.
Seals, D.R., Washburn, R.A., Hanson, P.G., et al., Increased Cardiovascular Response to Static Contraction of Larger Muscle Groups, J. Appl. Physiol., 1983, vol. 54, p. 434.
Seals, D.R., Sympathetic Neural Adjustments to Stress in Physically Trained and Untrained Humans, Hypertension, 1991, vol. 17, p. 36.
Silber, D.H., Sutliff, G., Yang, Q.X., et al., Altered Mechanisms of Sympathetic Activation During Rhythmic Forearm Exercise in Heart Failure, J. Appl. Physiol., 1998, vol. 84, p. 1551.
Sinoway, L. and Li, J., A Perspective on the Muscle Reflex: Implication for Congestive Heart Failure, J. Appl. Physiol., 2005, vol. 99, p. 5.
Somers, V.K., Leo, K.C., Shields, R., et al., Forearm Endurance Training Attenuates Sympathetic Nerve Response to Isometric Handgrip in Normal Humans, J. High Resolut. Chromatogr. Chromatogr. Commun., 1992, vol. 72, p. 1039.
Sunberg, C.J., Exercise and Training During Graded Leg Ischaemia in Healthy Man with Special Reference to Effects on Skeletal Muscle, Acta Physiol. Scand. Suppl., 1994, vol. 615, p. 1.
Svedenhag, J., Wallin, B.G., Sundlof, G., et al., Skeletal Muscle Sympathetic Activity at Rest in Trained and Untrained Subjects, Acta Physiol. Scand. Suppl., 1984, vol. 120, p. 499.
Takarada, Y., Nakamura, Y., Aruga, S., et al., Rapid Increase in Plasma Growth Hormone after Low-Intensity Resistance Exercise with Vascular Occlusion, J. Appl. Physiol., 2000, vol. 88, no. 1, p. 61.
Thimm, F. and Baum, K., Response of Chemosensitive Nerve Fibers of Group III and IV to Metabolic Changes in Rat Muscles, Pflugers Arch., 1987, vol. 410, p. 143.
VanTeeffelen, J.W. and Segal, S.S., Interaction between Sympathetic Nerve Activation and Muscle Fibre Contraction in Resistance Vessels of Hamster Retractor Muscle, J. Physiol., 2003, vol. 550, p. 563.
Viru, M., Jansson E., Viru, A., and Sundberg, C.J., Effect of Restricted Blood Flow on Exercise-Induced Hormone Changes in Healthy Men, Eur. J. Appl. Physiol. Occup. Physiol., 1998, vol. 77, no. 6, p. 517.
White, M.J. and Carrington, C.A., The Pressor Response to Involuntary Isometric Exercise of Young and Elderly Human Muscle with Reference to Muscle Contractile Characteristics, Eur. J. Appl. Physiol., 1993, vol. 66, p. 338.
White, M.J. and Bell, M., Blood Pressure Responses to External Compression of the Human Lower Leg during Calf Muscle Chemoreflex Stimulation of Varying Intensity, J. Physiol., 2003, vol. 551, p. 40.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Additional information
Original Russian Text © O.L. Vinogradova, D.V. Popov, O.S. Tarasova, Ya.R. Bravyi, S.S. Missina, E.Yu. Bersenev, A.S. Borovik, 2008, published in Aviakosmicheskaya i Ekologicheskaya Meditsina, 2008, Vol. 42, No. 1, pp. 5–15.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Vinogradova, O.L., Popov, D.V., Tarasova, O.S. et al. Ergoreflex: The essence and mechanisms. Hum Physiol 38, 665–674 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1134/S0362119712070250
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1134/S0362119712070250