Introduction

Social entrepreneurship has gained global attention due to the emergence of social issues such as government failure, market failure, and excessive market competition in the 1990s. Initially, social entrepreneurship models were primarily considered in relation to the public service sector (Thompson et al., 2000). However, recently, financial crises in some countries have severely affected the investments and operations of nonprofit enterprises, and market failures have led to a continuous and increasing demand for nonprofit services. This has resulted in the growing popularity of social entrepreneurship at the global level, compensating for the limitations of the economic value-maximization orientation in market economy conditions (Bacq and Janssen, 2011). Social entrepreneurship addresses social needs and problems; its name reflects the uniqueness and significance of its contribution to society. Its primary objective is to address social value development. For a social enterprise to remain financially viable, an entrepreneurial project must generate a specific amount of revenue (Hockerts, 2017; Bazan et al., 2020). The organizational mission of social enterprises, created from social entrepreneurship, involves performing socially beneficial actions while operating in the same way as ordinary commercial enterprises in the pursuit of profitability. Thus, exploring social entrepreneurial intentions (SEIs) could widen our understanding of society’s needs and perceptions of social entrepreneurship, facilitating the formation of social enterprises and promoting the public good while helping enterprises continue to grow profitably (Hockerts, 2017).

The growing demand for social enterprises has led to an increase in the number of start-ups, creating opportunities for social change and development. Social entrepreneurship has gained importance in the development of academic research, practices, and policies in the field of entrepreneurship (Hu et al., 2020; Hockerts, 2017). Most studies over the past two decades have emphasized the need to identify and understand the influence of social entrepreneurship start-ups (Obschonka et al. 2014; Hockerts, 2017; Hu et al., 2018). Social enterprises aim to address problems such as poverty, waste, and environmental issues (Rawhouser et al., 2019). Therefore, research on social entrepreneurship that can benefit both the economy and society is crucial. Research on SEI can provide a comprehensive understanding of the current views and perceptions on social entrepreneurship and the need for social enterprises in society (Hockerts, 2017). Previous studies have used the theory of planned behavior (TPB) to examine the entrepreneurial motivations and influencing factors (e.g., social norms and personal perception factors) of university student entrepreneurs and predict their SEIs (Entrialgo and Iglesias, 2016; Al-Jubari, 2019). For instance, Chang et al. (2022) studied the predictors of SEIs among Thai and Taiwanese university students. Similarly, Rambe and Ndofirepi (2021) investigated the key factors affecting SEIs among college students in Zimbabwe. Naveed et al. (2021) explored university students’ social entrepreneurship orientations and their influence on SEIs. Additionally, Asma et al. (2019) analyzed the factors that impact the SEIs of Chinese students. These studies offer insights into SEI formation and suggest strategies for motivating future social entrepreneurs. However, the TPB model alone is insufficient to understand these phenomena because these studies did not consider the personal characteristics of university students (e.g., values, perceptions of responsibility, and consequences). To fill this research gap, this study investigates the impact of various factors, including university students’ values, on their SEIs using the values-beliefs-norms (VBN) model.

Social entrepreneurship is both economically and socially profitable. Social entrepreneurship initiatives introduce innovative products and services that encourage individuals to engage in prosocial behaviors (De Bernardi et al., 2021). Therefore, it is necessary to explore the factors leading to the formation of SEIs. Understanding these factors is essential for fostering an environment that encourages the creation of social ventures, which are increasingly recognized as a means of addressing complex socioeconomic and humanitarian challenges, particularly in the context of China. Recently, several regions in China have begun to develop social enterprises to address current social problems, including special education, employment of people with disabilities, poverty relief, and environmental protection issues (Warnecke, 2018). Examining the SEIs of Chinese university students is particularly crucial, because they are a vital force in the country’s future development, possessing high education levels, strong innovative abilities, broad visions, and a heightened sense of social responsibility (Mensah et al., 2021). These university students are at a critical juncture in their lives where career decisions and entrepreneurial intentions are formed (Lyu et al., 2024). Moreover, China’s collectivist culture emphasizes community and social harmony, which aligns with the principles of social entrepreneurship. Consequently, there is a growing trend among Chinese youth toward more socially responsible and sustainable business practices (García-Morales et al., 2020). Furthermore, university students’ engagement in social entrepreneurship not only allows them to realize their own value and development but also contributes to solving social problems or fulfilling social needs (Li et al., 2022). Although substantial research has been conducted on entrepreneurship, social entrepreneurship among university students in China remains relatively underexplored. This study explores the factors that stimulate social entrepreneurship intentions among university students by supporting more entrepreneurs, promoting the growth of social enterprises in China, and addressing social issues. Specifically, this study addresses the following research questions (RQs):

RQ1: How do students’ altruistic and traditional values influence their normative beliefs in the context of SEIs?

RQ2: Do students’ normative beliefs, awareness of consequences, and ascriptions of responsibility affect their personal norms regarding SEIs?

RQ3: How do students’ normative beliefs affect their awareness of consequences, and how does this awareness impact their ascription of responsibilities?

RQ4: How do students’ personal, injunctive, and descriptive social norms influence SEIs?

To answer these research questions, this study examines the factors influencing SEIs among Chinese university students using the VBN theory. VBN theory can effectively explain the role of values, beliefs, and norms in promoting individual intentions and behaviors (Al-Jubari, 2019; Kim and Seock, 2019; Yang et al., 2023). It can also be used to study SEIs, as it reveals an individual’s psychological characteristics such as values, belief systems, and sense of responsibility when confronting social issues and explores how these psychological characteristics influence students’ willingness to take positive actions to improve or solve social problems (Yang et al., 2023). This study adds to the current body of knowledge by extending the application of VBN theory to the field of social entrepreneurship, offering a new perspective on the motivational factors influencing SEIs. Moreover, by focusing on Chinese university students, this study provides valuable insights into the cultural and educational factors influencing SEIs in a non-Western context. Regarding practical implications, the findings of this study can inform the development of university curricula and policies aimed at fostering social entrepreneurship among students. Educators and policymakers can better support and cultivate future social entrepreneurs by identifying the key values, beliefs, and norms that drive SEIs.

Literature review

Social entrepreneurship is a type of entrepreneurship that aims to fulfill a social mission, unlike traditional entrepreneurship, which primarily seeks economic gain. Numerous factors such as personality traits, self-efficacy, creativity, attitudes, subjective norms, behavioral control, moral obligations, empathy, social support, social capital, entrepreneurship orientation, and prior exposure and experience have been identified as influencing factors of SEIs. Hossain et al. (2024) investigated the impact of the “big five” personality traits, social self-efficacy, and social support on SEIs among 354 Bangladeshi university students and found that all factors significantly influenced students’ SEIs. Similarly, Chang et al. (2022) explored the impact of attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control on 832 university students’ SEIs in Thailand and Taiwan using TPB as the theoretical foundation. The results indicated that all predictors had a positive and significant impact on SEIs. Utilizing the same theoretical perspective, Rambe and Ndofirepi (2021) studied the key factors influencing 284 college students’ SEIs in Zimbabwe. They tested the impact of moral obligation, empathy, self-efficacy, and social support on SEIs. The findings revealed that all factors except social support had a statistically significant relationship with SEIs.

Naveed et al. (2021) collected data from 241 Pakistani university students and found that their social entrepreneurship orientations, including innovativeness, risk-taking, proactiveness, and social passion, significantly affect their SEIs. Asma et al. (2019) examined the factors influencing the SEIs of 231 Chinese students in educational programs, including prior experience, empathy, moral obligations, self-efficacy, and perceived social support. This study revealed that most factors except perceived social support significantly influenced SEIs. Using TPB, Ip et al. (2018) investigated the impact of personality traits (extraversion, openness to experience, neuroticism, conscientiousness, and agreeableness), creativity (originality and usefulness), and social capital (bridging and bonding) on the SEIs of 331 university students in Hong Kong. The results showed that only openness among the personality traits and originality among the creativity dimensions significantly affected SEIs. The other dimensions had no significant effects. Tiwari et al. (2017b) identified SEIs among 166 Indian students using the TPB as the research framework. The authors measured emotional intelligence, self-efficacy, attitudes toward becoming a social entrepreneur, and SEIs. Both emotional intelligence and self-efficacy were positively and significantly associated with attitudes and SEIs.

However, the reviewed literature reveals several gaps, including an over-reliance on TPB, methodological constraints such as varying and often limited sample sizes, and insufficient consideration of contextual factors. For instance, the majority of existing studies, including those by Chang et al. (2022), Rambe and Ndofirepi (2021), Naveed et al. (2021), Ip et al. (2018), and Tiwari et al. (2017b), used TPB as their theoretical foundation for exploring SEIs. Hossain et al. (2024) and Asma et al. (2019) employed other theoretical perspectives. Thus, the existing studies on SEIs predominantly employ TPB, which, despite its validity in predicting entrepreneurial behavior, has notable limitations, such as an overemphasis on individual cognitive processes and rational decision-making, neglecting the broader sociocultural and ethical dimensions essential to social entrepreneurship. Methodologically, most of these studies have frequently utilized cross-sectional surveys, which are susceptible to bias, thus limiting the researchers’ ability to draw causal inferences. The sample sizes in these studies demonstrated notable variations, with Hossain et al. (2024) employing 354 participants, Chang et al. (2022) 832, Rambe and Ndofirepi (2021) 284, Naveed et al. (2021) 241, Asma et al. (2019) 231, Ip et al. (2018) 331, and Tiwari et al. (2017b) 166. This variability may impact the robustness and generalizability of the findings owing to potential biases and inconsistencies associated with the sample size. Furthermore, the geographical contexts of existing studies in Bangladesh (Hossain et al., 2024), Thailand, Taiwan (Chang et al., 2022), Pakistan (Naveed et al., 2021), Zimbabwe (Rambe and Ndofirepi, 2021), China (Asma et al., 2019), Hong Kong (Ip et al., 2018), and India (Tiwari et al., 2017b) may limit their applicability in diverse cultural contexts. To address these research gaps, this study adopts a quantitative approach utilizing VBN theory. This framework integrates the altruistic values, normative beliefs, and ethical considerations essential for comprehending social entrepreneurial motivations. The holistic approach and emphasis on the interplay of values, beliefs, and norms in VBN theory can offer more profound insights into SEIs. Our study, which included 769 Chinese university students, aimed to provide perspectives from various cultural and socioeconomic contexts to fill the gaps in the literature.

Theoretical foundation

Stern et al. (1999) considered the values and normative activation processes from Schwartz’s (1977) normative activation model (NAM) and the social movement perspective to create the VBN theory. Addressing the antecedents of social movement support and individual environmentalism, the extensive application of VBN theory has led to its emergence as a social psychological theory (Abutaleb et al., 2020). This theoretical framework establishes causal connections between behaviors, norms, beliefs, and values. Personal norms serve as a motivating factor for individuals to engage in environmentally friendly behaviors. The activation of norms is subject to personal beliefs, particularly the individual’s awareness of the detrimental consequences of their actions on the well-being of others or the environment and their ascribed responsibility to mitigate such unfavorable outcomes. According to the VBN theory, personal values are an antecedent factor of personal norms (Stern et al., 1999). This theory, which has gained significant traction in the field of environmental protection, was initially formulated and has since been extensively employed (Li et al., 2018; Abutaleb et al., 2020; Trautwein et al., 2021; Raghu and Rodrigues, 2021). Nevertheless, individuals formulate personal norms to execute specific actions within diverse prosocial contexts (Youn et al., 2020). Therefore, the VBN theory was employed as a theoretical framework to explore SEIs at the individual level and expanded by incorporating social norms. Individuals’ interpretations of social contexts and their subsequent intentions and behaviors are influenced by their perceptions of social norms (Heinicke et al., 2022). Social entrepreneurship involves extensive communication between entrepreneurs and their external environments across various dimensions, including proximate relationships and social networks. The underlying principle of social entrepreneurship is to secure social resources and garner support, which is advantageous to society through the provision of products or services that cater to social needs (Fox and Davis, 2022). Hence, it is imperative to acknowledge the significance of social norms in shaping the development of SEIs, which presents a novel application of the VBN theory within the realm of social entrepreneurship.

Development of hypotheses

Social entrepreneurial intentions

Scholars have frequently analyzed SEIs to comprehend social entrepreneurship, as previous research has demonstrated that entrepreneurial intentions can effectively forecast entrepreneurial conduct (Bird, 1988; Martínez-Cañas et al., 2023). The term “SEI” refers to the inclination to undertake a social mission with the aim of assisting individuals in need, as opposed to prioritizing personal interests (Miller et al., 2012). This pertains to individuals’ inclination and determination to undertake a social mission that guides and regulates entrepreneurial endeavors and establish a social enterprise (Tiwari et al., 2017a; Paramita et al., 2022). In contrast to conventional entrepreneurship, which prioritizes profit as its primary objective, social entrepreneurship is driven by prosocial motivations rooted in moral identity, with the goal of benefiting society from the outset (Donaldson et al., 2023). The shift in generational values has led to an increased focus among young people on non-monetary objectives such as pursuing a fulfilling lifestyle or aiding marginalized communities. Consequently, there has been a growing interest in examining the psychological factors that influence young people’s SEIs (Chandra et al., 2021). This area of inquiry has become a prominent research topic. Prior research posits that SEIs can be predicted by factors such as values, ethics, beliefs, and other related variables (Kraus et al., 2017; Chandra et al., 2021; Paramita et al., 2022). Therefore, this study employs the VBN theory to investigate the influence of values, beliefs, and norms on the intention to engage in social entrepreneurship.

Values and beliefs

Values are what one considers important; they can influence the perception and evaluation of things, ultimately shaping one’s objectives in life (Steg et al., 2014). Studies have shown that entrepreneurs are frequently driven by personal values that are significant to their lives (Gunawan et al., 2020). The VBN theory postulates that individuals’ different values influence their personal beliefs and norms to some extent (Stern et al., 1999; Steg et al., 2014). In the context of entrepreneurship, variations in individuals’ values account for their diverse vocational aspirations and inclinations when pursuing careers in entrepreneurship (Dougherty et al., 2019; Bergner et al., 2022). Therefore, this study introduces the VBN theory to explore the transformation of values, beliefs, and norms in the social entrepreneurial process and examines the crucial role of personal values in motivating beliefs.

Within the VBN framework, certain values such as biospheric (Trautwein et al., 2021), egoistic (Trautwein et al., 2021), and altruistic (Majeed et al., 2023) values have been integrated. In the context of social entrepreneurship, some environmental factors may not be significant. Thus, the values in this study consist of both altruistic and traditional values. Altruistic values have a stronger effect on personal norms than other values in the context of social benefits. Based on the VBN theory, altruistic values have a direct and indirect influence on normative beliefs at the individual level (Sharma and Gupta, 2020). Individuals with altruistic values are more likely to demonstrate a substantial intention to care for others, even at their own expense (Choi et al., 2015; Liu et al., 2018). In line with this concept, Guan and Zhang (2023) highlight the importance of altruistic values when discussing the promotion of sustainable goals in the Chinese population, indicating a significant relationship with normative beliefs.

Traditional values, which originated from the value clusters defined by Schwartz (1992), are also known as conservation values. This cluster includes traditional values related to conformity, tradition, and security. These values pertain to the inclination to adopt, esteem, and conform to religious and cultural traditions and practices (Schwartz, 1992). Entrepreneurship and corporate social studies have widely explored traditional values. Research suggests that individuals who value traditional practices tend to have more positive perceptions of corporate social responsibility (Choongo et al., 2019). Additionally, studies have demonstrated that traditional values play a significant role in facilitating individual survival, social interactions, and group survival and functioning (Schwartz, 1994; Schwartz, 2011). Therefore, the influence of traditional values on the formation or alteration of personal beliefs about one’s existence and social connections should not be overlooked. Thus, this study proposes the following hypotheses:

H1. Altruistic values positively influence normative beliefs.

H2. Traditional values positively influence normative beliefs.

Beliefs and norms

Previous studies that adopted the VBN theory (Stern, 2000) suggested that social behavior is prompted by a process involving a causal chain of various forms of individual values, including normative beliefs, awareness of consequences, ascription of responsibility, and personal norms (De Groot and Steg, 2009). Personal norms are formed based on one’s recognition and sense of accountability for the implications of their chosen action or behavior (Kaiser et al., 2005; De Groot and Steg, 2009). According to Ajzen’s (1991) TPB, various forms of belief influence personal norms to some extent, which subsequently influences personal attitudes and perceived behaviors. Many empirical studies that have adopted the VBN theory have reported a complex relationship between beliefs and norms and highlighted the influence of normative beliefs on personal norms, attitudes, and behavioral intentions (Stern et al., 1999; Steg et al., 2014; Fang et al., 2019).

Normative beliefs encompass personal perspectives on the acceptability of a particular behavior and serve as internal indicators of acceptable and unacceptable behaviors that influence behavioral intentions and actual behaviors (Huesmann and Guerra, 1997). These beliefs can also be social (Cialdini et al., 1990) and include descriptive and injunctive social norms. In scholarly investigations of social influence, social normative beliefs are considered crucial external factors that shape individual perceptions (Wang and Lin, 2017). Moreover, awareness of consequences is a key motivational construct in various social behavioral theories, including the TPB (Ajzen, 1991), NAM (Schwartz, 1977), and VBN theories (Stern, et al., 1999; Stern, 2000). This concept involves being conscious of the negative consequences of one’s actions toward others (Song et al., 2023). The VBN theory posits that awareness of consequences is a form of belief that leads to positive norms and minimizes the negative consequences of environmental problems (Stern, 2000; Si et al., 2021). Ascription of responsibility is the personal view, evaluation, or impression of who should be accountable for a particular aspect or decision (Song et al., 2023). Unlike awareness of consequences, ascription of responsibility emphasizes one’s willingness to take responsibility for the implications of their actions and behaviors and the ability to deal with the resultant outcomes or problems caused by such actions or behaviors (Van Riper and Kyle, 2014; Jagers et al., 2016).

Prior empirical studies have proven the positive influence of awareness of consequences on attitudes, subjective norms, and personal norms (Han, 2015; Chen, 2020; Song et al., 2023). The inability to make a positive contribution to the well-being and equity of society through one’s efforts can exacerbate social issues, requiring more drastic measures for remediation and resulting in an increased awareness of consequences. Additionally, this can lead to a sense of accountability toward the commission of specific actions and the ascription of responsibility. Therefore, one has a moral obligation to optimize the overall welfare and equity of the community by adhering to personal norms. Thus, the reinforcement of personal norms is facilitated by an awareness of the consequences and ascription of responsibility. He and Zhan’s (2018) study on the intention and behavior toward energy-saving vehicles proved that consumers’ personal beliefs could be influenced by their awareness of the consequences and ascription of responsibility. Accordingly, the following hypotheses are proposed:

H3. Normative beliefs positively influence personal norms.

H4. Awareness of consequences positively influences personal norms.

H5. Ascription of responsibility positively influences personal norms.

Prior studies that adopted the VBN theory demonstrated the direct influence of beliefs on normative aspects. According to this theory, beliefs involve the assumption that a fact is true without relying on methodological arguments. Liu et al. (2018) explored the mediating role of general beliefs in the relationship between values and specific beliefs such as awareness of consequences and ascription of responsibility (Schwartz, 1977). Previous studies have proven the influence of the awareness of consequences and ascription of responsibility on normative beliefs and personal norms (De Groot and Steg, 2009). Pradhananga and Davenport (2022) found that being aware of consequences and ascribing responsibility positively affect personal norms and conservation behaviors. Vaske et al. (2020) examined the epistemic condition of moral responsibility, which is a normative belief that reflects the knowledge or awareness essential for taking moral accountability for actions and their consequences. Thus, this study assumes a strong relationship between normative beliefs, awareness of consequences, and ascription of responsibility. Consequently, the following hypotheses are proposed:

H6. Normative beliefs positively influence awareness of consequences.

H7. Awareness of consequences positively influences ascription of responsibility.

Norms and social entrepreneurial intentions

Personal norms are rules or guidelines for personal behavior that guide individuals to behave ethically. Personal norms are closely linked to an individual’s self-concept and are perceived as consisting of a moral duty to engage in specific behaviors (De Groot et al., 2021). Previous studies that have applied the VBN theory have focused on personal norms (Hiratsuka et al., 2018; Park et al., 2022; Majeed et al., 2023). However, in China’s collectivist society, which emphasizes the interdependence of relationships and group members, the impact of social norms on individuals is amplified (Hashinaga et al., 2023). “Social norms” refer to the collective perceptions of how individuals of significance in a social circle should think or behave, serving as a compass for what is considered customary. They can influence how individuals interpret the social environment and their intentions and behaviors. Cialdini et al. (1990) proposed two types of social norms: injunctive and descriptive. Injunctive social norms pertain to a commonly accepted set of behavioral guidelines within a particular social group, whereas descriptive social norms elucidate the behavioral patterns of a social group in a given context (Heinicke et al., 2022).

The literature suggests that personal norms are among the primary factors contributing to consumption intentions at the individual level (Youn et al., 2020; Park et al., 2022; Majeed et al., 2023). Many studies have confirmed the positive relationship between personal norms and behavioral intentions, such as behavioral intentions to patronize green hotels (Bashir et al., 2019), purchase environmentally friendly products (Kim and Seock, 2019), and engage in social entrepreneurship (Yang et al. 2023). Personal norms are individual-level standards that instill a sense of intrinsic moral obligation to address the social problems that one cares about, which ultimately becomes a motivation for SEIs (Bergner et al., 2022). Previous studies have demonstrated the positive influence of social norms on behavioral intentions related to entrepreneurship (Meek et al., 2010; Mondal et al., 2023). Individuals are prone to conforming to norms when they perceive that a particular behavior is widely accepted by society (injunctive social norms) and prevalent within their social context (descriptive social norms). In this context, the relationship between perceptions of the frequency of others’ actions and the level of social approval related to them is well established. However, descriptive and injunctive social norms are distinct categories that may not align in some instances. Zainol et al. (2023) reported significant relationships between injunctive and descriptive social norms and behavioral intentions, suggesting the significance of both forms of social norms in influencing behavioral intentions. Based on this discussion, we propose the following hypotheses:

H8. Personal norms positively influence social entrepreneurial intentions.

H9. Injunctive social norms positively influence social entrepreneurial intentions.

H10. Descriptive social norms positively influence social entrepreneurial intentions.

Figure 1 illustrates the hypothesized relationships among all constructs in this study.

Fig. 1
figure 1

Theoretical Framework - Highlighting the associations between environmental values, beliefs, norms, and social entrepreneurial intentions.

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Methodology

This section describes the research methodology and implementation process. It presents the research background and objectives of this study, questionnaire design, sample size calculation, techniques for data collection, pretest adoption, common method bias (CMB) testing, analysis runs, reliability and validity of measurement models, evaluation of relationships between latent variables, and results.

Sample selection and data collection

This cross-sectional study adopted a quantitative approach using judgmental sampling techniques and collected data using the WJX online questionnaire. Judgmental sampling was used because the study population was limited to university students on campus, which is a convenient way to avoid bias in the results caused by other random populations (Etikan et al., 2016). The online survey link could be accessed starting from December 1 to December 15, 2021, by appointed university counselors and lecturers in China who helped disseminate it in on-campus forums, class QQ groups, and WeChat. The minimum sample size was determined using the G*Power 3.1 calculation recommended by Faul et al. (2009). Since this study used the one-tailed test, the α value was entered as 0.05, the Power (1-β err prob) value was used with the recommended value of 0.90, and it was used with an Effect size (f2) of 0.15 and 8 predictors; thus, the minimum sample size in this study was determined to be 136.

This study was approved by the Human Research Ethics Committee of Changzhi University in China to protect the rights of all parties and confirm adherence to sound academic standards. To protect the respondents’ basic right to informed consent, they were informed of the purpose of the study and their possible involvement in the collection of personal information, such as age and sex, prior to data collection. The anonymity and confidentiality of all information were ensured. All data on the demographic characteristics of respondents were used for the purpose of the current study only. The respondents signed an informed consent form before participating in the survey. The participants were allowed to withdraw from the survey at any time. After data screening, the researchers removed incomplete questionnaires and those from participants with educational levels below a bachelor’s degree or equivalent; ultimately, 769 valid samples were successfully acquired for data analysis.

Survey instrument

All the measurement items for the survey instrument were adapted from previous studies. The measurement items for altruistic values, traditional values, and normative beliefs were adapted from Stern et al. (1999), whereas those for awareness of consequences and ascription of responsibility were from Stern et al. (1999). The measurement items for personal norms were adapted from Ünal et al. (2017), and those for injunctive and descriptive social norms from Doran and Larsen (2015). Finally, the measurement items for the SEIs were adapted from Ruiz-Rosa et al. (2020). The survey instrument was translated into Chinese with the assistance of a professional translation service in line with the current research context. To avoid invalid testing situations and determine whether the translated questionnaire would cause reading difficulties, this study introduced pretesting to circumvent the issue prior to the formal survey. Afterward, 25 respondents were invited to participate in the pretest. A seven-point Likert scale ranging from “not important” (1) to “very important” (7) was used for the measurement items related to altruistic and traditional values. For the other measurement items, a seven-point Likert scale with the endpoints “strongly disagree” (1) and “strongly agree” (7) was used. The complete questionnaire is presented in the supplementary material (Supplementary Material S1. Survey Questionnaire).

Common method bias

Ex-ante and post hoc tests were used in this study to avoid and identify Common Method Bias (CMB) (Rodríguez-Ardura and Meseguer-Artola, 2020) and minimize its detrimental effects, respectively. Given the focus of this study is on social entrepreneurship, any motivational factors that could lead to biased responses were considered. Procedural and statistical measures were also used. Procedural measures were implemented to manage CMB from an ex-ante perspective in previous research (Honora et al., 2022). First, the respondents were informed that they should provide truthful responses, as there were no correct or incorrect responses. Second, the participants were assured of their anonymity and confidentiality. Finally, pre- and pilot tests were conducted. The study was conducted using Harman’s single-factor test and a collinearity test for post hoc analysis (Rodríguez-Ardura and Meseguer-Artola, 2020). Harman’s single-factor test was performed to identify potential cases of CMB. The first and largest factor recorded was 26.491% (<40%), given the negligibility of the CMB in this study (Fuller et al., 2016). We also conducted a collinearity test. The results in Table 1 reveal that the variance inflation factor (VIF) values, ranging from 1.173 to 2.818, did not exceed the threshold value of 3.3 (Kock, 2015). Both test results confirmed the absence of CMB.

Table 1 Results of collinearity test.
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Data analysis

Hair et al. (2022) recommended the use of variance-based partial least squares-structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM) to address multivariate non-normality, which was considered in this study. First, the obtained data were uploaded using the Web Power online statistical tool and analyzed for multivariate skewness, kurtosis, and p-values before PLS-SEM was performed. The results showed that the multivariate skewness and kurtosis were not equal to zero and the p-value was lower than 0.05, implying that the obtained data did not indicate a normal distribution. PLS-SEM was then performed for further in-depth evaluation. The reliability and validity of the reflective measurement model were also assessed. Bootstrapping was used to assess the structural models. Statistical software (SmartPLS 3.0) was used for all the analyses.

Results

Demographic characteristics of the respondents

Table 2 presents the demographic characteristics of the respondents. Most respondents were female (58.8%) and aged 20–30 years old (54.1%). In addition, 71.0% of the respondents reported attaining a bachelor’s degree as their highest education level, followed by those with a master’s degree (24.8%) and a doctoral degree (4.2%). Most of the respondents earned less than CNY 2500 (26.9%), followed by CNY 2501–5000 (21.7%), CNY 5001–7500 (19.0%), CNY 7501–10,000 (12.4%), and above CNY 12,501 (11.1%). According to the online conversion tool provided by the People’s Bank of China, the exchange rate of the US dollar to the Chinese yuan in 2021 was approximately US$ 1 = 7 yuan. Only a minority reported earning 10, 001–12, 500 CNY (9.0%). Although the survey involved only 12 universities in China, we obtained a regionally diverse sample of respondents across the country: Shanghai (16.9%), Shandong (15.7%), Zhejiang (10.0%), Beijing (6.4%), Guangdong (6.4%), Guangxi (4.0%), Hunan (3.5%), Jiangsu (2.7), and other provinces (34.3%).

Table 2 Profile of the respondents.
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Assessment of the measurement model

Based on the results in Table 3, the recorded values of average variance extracted (AVE) for all items exceeded 0.5, demonstrating the model’s convergent validity (Hair et al., 2022). For the adjusted model, the recorded VIF values between 1.051 and 1.827 were substantially lower than the recommended threshold value of 3.3, indicating no potential collinearity issues. Additionally, Cronbach’s alpha, composite reliability, and Dijkstra-Henseler’s rho values for all items exceeded 0.7, demonstrating the internal consistency of these items (Hair et al., 2021).

Table 3 Validity and reliability assessment.
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According to the results of the Fornell-Larcker criterion in Table 4, the square root of the AVE of each latent variable (diagonal value) exceeded the correlation of the latent variable with the other constructs, suggesting its uniqueness in the study’s model. Based on the results in Table 5, all items except TRV4 and TRV7 recorded factor loadings above 0.5, and only TRV4 and TRV7 were removed. Furthermore, the recorded cross-loadings were substantially higher than the loadings of other items deemed acceptable. In addition, the results in Table 6 revealed that the recorded values of the heterotrait–monotrait ratio (HTMT), which ranged from 0.161 to 0.750, did not exceed the threshold value of 0.80. These results demonstrated the reliability, convergent validity, and discriminant validity of the measurement model.

Table 4 Fornell-Larcker criterion.
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Table 5 Loadings and cross-loadings.
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Table 6 Heterotrait–Monotrait ratio (HTMT0.85).
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Assessment of the structural model

To assess the structural model, a bootstrapping procedure was performed on 5000 subsamples at a 5% significance level to determine the coefficient of determination (R2) and effect size (f2). A blindfolding procedure was conducted to determine the predictive relevance (Q2). The results are summarized in Table 7. Overall, the endogenous constructs in this study had R2 values greater than 0.10 (Hair et al., 2021). The results further revealed that the model explained 48.2%, 12.1%, 18.7%, 13%, and 42.9% of the total variance in normative beliefs, personal norms, awareness of consequences, ascription of responsibility, and SEI, respectively. Additionally, the values of Q2 for the normative beliefs (0.283), personal norms (0.089), awareness of consequences (0.116), ascription of responsibility (0.071), and SEI (0.263) exceeded zero, confirming the satisfactory and substantial predictive power of the model.

Table 7 Path coefficients.
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Hair et al. (2022) recommend using f2 to examine the magnitude of moderation in explaining an endogenous construct. According to Hair et al. (2022), f2 values greater than 0.005, 0.01, and 0.025 indicate small, medium, and large effects, respectively. However, according to Cohen (2013), f2 values above 0.02, 0.15, and 0.35 suggest small, medium, and large effect sizes, respectively. In this study, all f2 values exceeded 0.02. Referring to a recent recommendation by Hair et al. (2022), all the endogenous constructs in this study’s model demonstrated considerable effect sizes.

Testing of the hypotheses

Table 7 demonstrates the significant and positive influence of altruistic values (β = 0.407, p < 0.001, CI = (0.327, 0.487)) and traditional values (β = 0.396, p < 0.001, CI = (0.313, 0.472)) on normative beliefs (medium effect size). Thus, H1 and H2 are supported. In addition, normative beliefs (β = 0.281, p < 0.001, CI = (0.203, 0.363)) were found to have a significant positive influence on personal norms (small effect size). Therefore, H3 is supported. Surprisingly, awareness of consequences (β = 0.056, p = 0.121, CI = (−0.019, 0.0.134)) and ascription of responsibility (β = 0.054, p = 0.132, CI = (−0.021, 0.138)) had no significant influence on personal norms. This study showed inadequate evidence to support H4 and H5.

On the contrary, the influence of normative beliefs (β = 0.432, p < 0.001, CI = (0.356, 0.511)) on awareness of consequences (medium effect size) and the influence of awareness of consequences (β = 0.361, p < 0.001, CI = (0.285, 0.446)) on ascription of responsibility (medium effect size) were statistically significant and positive. Therefore, H6 and H7 were supported.

Similarly, the results revealed a significant positive influence of personal norms (β = 0.206, p < 0.001, CI = (0.155, 0.265)), injunctive social norms (β = 0.369, p < 0.001, CI = (0.298, 0.435)), and descriptive social norms (β = 0.375, p < 0.001, CI = (0.309, 0.437)) on SEI. However, only injunctive and descriptive social norms had a significant effect on SEI; personal norms had only a small effect on SEI. Therefore, H8, H9, and H10 were supported.

Multiple group analysis

Multiple group analysis (MGA) was performed to determine the differences in SEIs between sexes. Prior to the analysis, referring to the guidelines proposed by Henseler et al. (2016) and considering the context of the current study, the measurement invariance of the scale in different groups was validated. All valid samples were grouped into male (N = 317) and female (N = 452) groups. Subsequently, measurement invariance of composite models (MICOM) was conducted on the structural model between the sexes to ensure no significant differences between the groups. The results revealed that the confidence interval between the maximum and minimum values was zero, suggesting measurement invariance. Finally, using partial least squares-multi-group analysis (PLS-MGA), the obtained path coefficients were compared at the 5% level of significance. The results in Table 8 indicate that the recorded p-values exceeded 0.05, confirming no significant differences in any of the hypothesized relationships between the sexes.

Table 8 Multi-group analysis.
Full size table

Discussion

This study explored Chinese university students’ SEIs based on VBN theory. Structural equation modeling was used to answer the research question, and data analysis revealed several key findings. First, our results indicated that altruistic and traditional values exert a significant impact on students’ normative beliefs regarding the favorable consequences of SEIs. Second, these beliefs shape personal norms that promote awareness of social issues, which, in turn, drives SEIs. However, awareness of consequences and ascription of responsibility did not play a significant role in this process. Third, students’ normative beliefs influenced their awareness of consequences, which, in turn, affected their ascription of responsibility, ultimately fostering SEIs. Fourth, our study found that personal, injunctive, and descriptive social norms significantly influenced students’ SEIs. Finally, no effect of sex on any of the hypothesized relationships was observed.

The findings of this study confirm that altruistic and traditional values have a significant positive effect on normative beliefs, which is consistent with previous research (Kim et al., 2022; Chen and Wu, 2022; Fang et al., 2016 and Choongo et al., 2019) and align with the VBN theory. According to this theory, individuals’ values shape their beliefs about what is normatively appropriate or desirable in a given context, ultimately influencing their behavior (Stern et al., 1999). This finding supports the notion that individuals with strong altruistic or traditional values are more likely to perceive certain behaviors as socially desirable or expected, leading to the formation of normative beliefs that guide their actions regarding social entrepreneurship. Similarly, Kim et al. (2022) found that individuals with a high degree of altruism during COVID-19 were more likely to prioritize peace, social justice, and the welfare of others. This led to the formation of health-related beliefs and adherence to COVID-19 prevention rules. In such situations, action-guiding rules are important moral obligations that promote proactive and preventive travel measures by tourists. In this study, altruistic values motivated university students to believe that entrepreneurial behaviors that benefit society should be adopted. Moreover, Chen and Wu (2022) examined Chinese tourists’ intentions to support low-carbon tourism and found that traditional values positively impacted tourists’ environmental beliefs. The Chinese collectivist culture emphasizes the importance of group norms and the perception of individuals within the group, which significantly influences their behavior. Fang et al. (2016) and Choongo et al. (2019) argue that customers’ and the masses’ normative beliefs about intentions and behaviors, such as consumption and entrepreneurship, could be positively influenced by altruistic and traditional values, supporting the results of the current study. Thus, H1 and H2 were confirmed. This study also indicates that normative beliefs positively impact personal norms, which is consistent with the findings of Hilvert-Bruce and Neill (2020). This suggests that normative beliefs play an important role in the formation of personal norms and aligns with the VBN theory, which posits that perceptions of social norms influence individuals’ internal standards for behavior. In our study, university students’ acceptance of social responsibility led to the establishment of behavioral standards; performing actions to benefit society can elevate behavioral standards. Therefore, H3 was confirmed.

However, the findings revealed that awareness of consequences and ascription of responsibility had an insignificant effect on personal norms. Thus, Hypotheses H4 and H5 were rejected. These results are contrary to those by He and Zhan (2018), suggesting a need for a more nuanced understanding of motivational mechanisms in social entrepreneurship. These findings prompted further exploration of alternative theoretical perspectives such as social cognitive theory, which emphasizes the role of self-efficacy beliefs. The discrepancy in our results may be due to the characteristics of university students and the social quarantine measures implemented during the COVID-19 pandemic. From a group perspective, university students lack management skills, risk-averse behaviors, and entrepreneurial knowledge (Chien-Chi et al., 2020). Closed-loop management during the pandemic further restricted opportunities for Chinese university students to participate in social activities (Yuan et al., 2023). For instance, if students were unable to participate in social welfare activities or part-time jobs, they could only obtain information through the Internet. A lack of social experience may have led to insufficient awareness of the consequences for university students. In addition, closed-loop management kept the students relatively socially isolated, hindering their integration into society (Yuan et al., 2023). The economic downturn caused by COVID-19 has intensified university students’ concerns about employment prospects, leading to anxiety and depression, which potentially affected their self-assessment of their abilities (Plakhotnik et al., 2021). This may have resulted in a cognitive bias among university students, who perceived themselves as incapable of assuming social responsibility.

Nonetheless, this study shows that normative beliefs positively affect the awareness of consequences, which, in turn, positively influences the ascription of responsibility, validating the results of previous studies on pro-environmental behavioral intentions (Kiatkawsin and Han, 2017; Ghazali et al., 2019). These findings also align with VBN theory, which underscores the importance of social norms in shaping individuals’ ethical reasoning and sense of obligation toward social entrepreneurship. In this study, university students’ normative beliefs enhanced their perceptions and awareness of the consequences of social entrepreneurship. The stronger university students’ perceptions and acceptance of the consequences of social entrepreneurship, the greater their sense of responsibility attribution for the outcomes of entrepreneurship. Thus, when university students realize that social entrepreneurship is a feasible behavior and that entrepreneurial activities can yield benefits, such as reducing poverty and inequality in society, they become more inclined to take responsibility and fulfill their obligation to act in ways that benefit society. Thus, H6 and H7 were confirmed.

Meanwhile, the relationships between personal norms, injunctive social norms, descriptive social norms, and SEIs were found to be significant and positive, which is consistent with previous studies conducted by Bergner et al. (2022), Heinicke et al. (2022), and Tan et al. (2020). The results also align with theoretical frameworks such as TPB and VBN. According to the TPB theory, personal norms, injunctive social norms, and descriptive social norms are key determinants of behavioral intention (Ajzen, 1991). Similarly, the VBN theory emphasizes the role of social norms in shaping behaviors, highlighting the influence of injunctive (perceived approval or disapproval) and descriptive (perceived prevalence) social norms on intentions (Stern et al., 1999). These results provide empirical support for the importance of both individual beliefs and social norms in driving SEIs, thus contributing to the theoretical understanding of the field. Existing studies have also revealed that individual personal norms directly affect behavioral intentions, such as green hotel consumption intentions (Bashir et al., 2019) and environmentally friendly product purchase intentions (Kim and Seock, 2019). Personal norms have been widely noted as the most significant determinant of willingness to behave pro-socially (Kiatkawsin and Han, 2017). The higher the moral level of university students, the greater their willingness to participate in social entrepreneurship will be. Thus, in line with previous findings, this study confirms that injunctive and descriptive social norms promote SEIs among university students. When university students are publicly praised for their social entrepreneurship efforts or perceive that they have a moral obligation to contribute to social welfare, SEIs are encouraged. The promotion of successful entrepreneurs encourages university students to engage in public welfare-oriented activities. Additionally, the university environment and support for students’ social entrepreneurship efforts significantly influence their SEIs (Bazan et al., 2020). Thus, hypotheses H8, H9, and H10 were supported.

The MGA results indicated no significant differences between male and female students in any of the hypothesized relationships. These findings imply that motivational drivers, as outlined in the VBN theory, operate similarly regardless of sex, indicating that values, beliefs about social responsibility, and personal norms related to social entrepreneurship similarly influence both male and female students. This gender neutrality suggests that the intrinsic factors that promote SEIs are equally relevant and impactful for male and female students.

Implications

Theoretical implications

This study makes several significant theoretical contributions to the field of social entrepreneurship, particularly by integrating VBN theory into the analysis of SEIs among university students. By demonstrating that altruistic values, beliefs about societal well-being, and personal norms significantly influence SEIs, this study provides a novel theoretical framework capturing the moral and normative dimensions of social entrepreneurship. This integration enriches the existing theoretical landscape, which has predominantly relied on TPB (i.e., Chang et al., 2022; Ip et al., 2018; Tiwari et al., 2017a), by offering an alternative perspective that emphasizes the importance of values and norms in driving social entrepreneurial behaviors. Using the VBN model to study SEIs provides a new way of thinking in the field of entrepreneurial intention research. The findings of this study confirmed the significant influence and importance of personal, injunctive, and descriptive social norms on students’ SEIs, which is consistent with the findings of De Groot and Steg (2009). Additionally, this study used the VBN model as an analytical framework to identify personal values, beliefs, and norms as key variables influencing the formation of SEIs, revealing the psychological structure and behavioral logic of university students in the face of social problems from the perspectives of cognitive and social psychology and providing a new research direction and framework model for subsequent studies. Finally, by focusing on Chinese university students, this study adds a cultural dimension to the existing theoretical models of social entrepreneurship. It explores how cultural values, particularly within a collectivist society, interact with the VBN framework to shape SEIs.

Practical implications

Significant research and development in the field of entrepreneurship has contributed to the growing academic research interest in social entrepreneurship. From a practical perspective, this study supported the relationship between factors, including personal norms in the VBN model, and individuals’ SEIs. The findings contribute to the development of social innovation, social responsibility, and prosocial behaviors in Chinese universities for university student groups and increase awareness and acceptance of social entrepreneurship among university students, thus effectively enhancing their SEIs and related behaviors. Universities can provide specialized courses in social entrepreneurship that delve into crucial topics, such as social innovation, sustainable business strategies, impact measurement, and ethical considerations. Universities can also incorporate service-learning components into existing courses to enhance students’ understanding of the real-world implications of social entrepreneurship. In addition, they can host workshops that focus on skills vital to social entrepreneurship such as design thinking, fundraising, impact assessment, and social media marketing. Collaborating with social enterprises and non-governmental organizations (NGOs) to provide internships and field placements for students is also recommended. Universities can guide and educate students on beliefs and norms to provide them with a more comprehensive and effective understanding of social entrepreneurship and promote social entrepreneurship and prosocial behaviors when they enter society after finishing their education. Simultaneously, this study provides inspiration for university students seeking to understand and evaluate their SEIs, helping them recognize the influence of their values, beliefs, and norms on their behavioral choices and outcomes and motivating them to become a social entrepreneur. Additionally, it provides practical insights for social entrepreneurship educators, such as universities.

Limitations and recommendations for future research

The participants in this study were Chinese university students. Owing to the constraints imposed during the pandemic, the majority of the sample was likely to be highly educated but socially inexperienced. This may explain the substantial effect of personal norms on SEIs, which was observed in this study. The lack of social experience due to the closed-loop management forced by COVID-19 may have led to their insensitivity to awareness of the consequences of their actions and ascription of responsibility. Therefore, future research should explore the influence of awareness of consequences and ascription of responsibility in terms of personal norms. We recommend that researchers investigate whether the experience of social practices and social welfare services affects the relationship between awareness of consequences and ascription of responsibility in terms of personal norms. The results of the multi-group analysis showed that sex-based differences did not exist in social entrepreneurship tendencies. There were no significant differences among factors such as value dimensions and social norms. This study suggests applying VBN theory in future studies to gain more insight into the effects of additional factors on SEIs, such as problem awareness and outcome efficacy.

Conclusion

Social enterprises offer greater sustainability than traditional charitable organizations. Simultaneously, the demand for social enterprises continues to grow in many countries, especially developing ones. Although research on social entrepreneurship still presents several avenues for conceptual and paradigmatic debates, researchers and social groups have attempted to study and practice sustainability in relation to social entrepreneurship from different perspectives and dimensions. However, research on SEIs remains lacking. This study explored the influence of values on normative beliefs based on VBN theory and confirmed the positive influence of altruistic and traditional values on normative beliefs.

Awareness of consequences and attribution of responsibility did not have a significant effect on personal norms among college students. Regarding the context of data collection in this study, these results may be due to social isolation during the COVID-19 pandemic. The closed-loop management implemented by universities during the pandemic limited students’ opportunities to engage in social activities, resulting in a lack of socialization and making it more difficult for them to integrate into society. Whether a lack of socialization is the main cause of this outcome should be discussed in-depth in the future. Additionally, the results confirm the positive and significant influence of personal, injunctive, and descriptive social norms on social entrepreneurship, providing a favorable direction for promoting the development of social entrepreneurship among university students. Public praise and publicity for successful entrepreneurs in society are also driving factors for university students to engage in social entrepreneurship, indicating that governments and universities must promote prosocial behaviors among university students more effectively.