Congressional polarization and limitation riders in foreign aid appropriations

Abstract

Critics often accuse Congress of abdicating its constitutional authority in foreign policy. One source of evidence of congressional abdication is the relative lack of legislation authorizing foreign aid and other foreign policy tools. Because of recent gridlock, Congress now authorizes foreign policy the only way it can: in annual appropriations bills. I argue that this change in legislative strategy does not necessarily reflect an abdication by Congress. Instead, an increase in party polarization, which leads to the perceived abdication of foreign policy, simply shifts Congress’s legislating abilities to “limitation riders,” or legislative provisions written into appropriations bills. I find that an increase in polarization increases Congress’s use of these riders. I also find that polarization has encouraged Congress to use limitation riders in new ways. While foreign aid-related limitation riders once only consisted of contract and budget-related issues, they now comprise a wide variety of foreign and domestic policy issues. Congressional reliance on limitation riders has increased due to polarization and has consequences for foreign policy.

Appendix: list of rider summaries

List of General Provision Summaries in Foreign Operations Bills, 1970–1994

Continued availability	No Flood Control
contracts are public	Contracts are public
No late distribution	Engineering/architectural fees
No late distributions	No funds timber
Fiscal year	Bilateral funding
Unobligated balances	Military pensions
No funds oil	Transportation
Residence expenses	No contract w/o termination option
Non citizens compensation	No lobbying
Invalidity	No contracts w/o termination option
No China UN	NO China UN
No UN Dues	No UN dues
Fiscal year appropriations	Marijuana
Representation expenses	No Investment Incentive Fund Program
Race/religion equality in US	Fund provisions
POW expense	Public buildings and grounds
Abortion litigation	No funds intl financial institutions
bilateral funding	No nuclear goods
Cap on Funds	Fund Provisions
residence expense budget	Construction fees
Small business promotion	Growth capital
no funding certain countries	US Procurement
Construction in Underdeveloped Countries	No Funds Vietnam
No Funds Vietnam	Cambodia
US foreign currency	Entertainment budget
National forest	Prohibitions
reprogramming funds	Military coups
Iron/Steel Vietnam	No Angola Military Assistance
No nuclear fund	Representation allowances
Mount Baker-Snoqualmie	National defense spending
no transfers between accounts	Reporting requirement
No funding foreign politics	Entertainment expense fund
Intl development fund	No funding human rights violation
commodity business	Committee approval
Nuclear equipment	Obligation authority
Waive Israeli Loans	Representation allowances
Trainee programs	No funding oppressive countries
Government employees	No transportation funding
Human rights	Availability of funds
Contract approval	No funds w/o approval

Conditional assistance	No Funds Vietnam Police
Military entertainment expense fund	No aid human rights violations
Appropriation committee approval	No fund Mozambique
Acquiring more land	Vessel availability and reimbursement
Personnel compensation	No funding certain countries
Propaganda	Timing of funding
Appropriations approval	Residence funding
No funds: Mozambique or Angola	No funds to 9 countries
revised statutes	Contracts
commerce and trade	Inspector General
No funds: Mozambique	Angola
commissary	Loxahatchee hunting
surplus commodities	Agriculture loans
Appropriation committee approval	Default countries
Aircraft contract	Research and development
Obligation authority	Notification of requirements
No North Vietnam	US rep intl funds
Grizzly bears	Indirect cost rates
international organization fund	Revolving funds
No United Arab Republic	Financial institution mgmt rep
Countries in default	Vessel transfer
Phasing out conservation	Israeli aid
No Indonesia	No Vietnam
obligated funds	North Dakota conservation
Commodity credit	No funding abortion
document all funds	Financial transparency
Geothermal leasing	Transportation and aircraft
US representation	Financial documentation
Discharging liabilities	Weapon sales
education expense	Payroll
Loan representation	Commerce and trade
special notification requirement	Part 2:
Commodity competition	ROTC loyalty
Reimburse GSA	Surplus commodities
family planning fund	Budgeting rules
Amendment	Oil and coal heating plants
Surplus commodity	Notification requirements
No expenses	Facility construction
Committee on appropriations	Translation services
Consulting service	Reciprocal leasing
No peace corps fund	Availability of funds
Inactive duty pay	Health and medical care

Abortion lobbying	Authorization requirement
Senate compensation	No reimbursement
Admin Salary	No foreign assistance
No abortion lobby	Household furnishing
Public affairs activities	Veterinarians
depleted uranium	Excess defense equipment
US rep for intl funds	Uniforms
Reduce programs w/ end of year employment	President reports
loans to Israel	No funding terrorist countries
dept budget	Budgeting
Loans to Israel	UN voting record
bilateral aid terrorist countries	Enactment of legislation
No aid when human rights violation	No aid terrorism
CIA	Appropriations
International Bank budget	Commodity production
Military personnel	Restrict authority
ceilings and earmarks	Competitive insurance
No funds terrorism protectors	Advertising cost
extramural budget	Funds Only for this act
El Salvador aid	No selling stingers
Sec of state report to congress	OECD consultation
No funds Germany	Agriculture marketing agreement
El Salvador policy	Aircraft in Central America
Human rights standards	Working capital funds
No military aircraft	Aircraft in Central America
stockpile location	Employee budget
Disaster assistance	Guatemala resettlement
Pakistan aid	US aid
Global warming initiative	Montreal Protocol
separate accounts	Debt for development
Second career	No funds abortions
executive director compensation	Location of stockpile
Demilitarization	Private voluntary organization
separate accounts	Medical and dental care
Auditing requirements	Private voluntary orgs
El Salvador investigation	IFI replenishments
fund reprogramming	Travel allowances
Refugee resettlement	Excess defense articles
nonemergency claims	Waiver costs
priority equipment delivery	Health program limitation
Refugee aid	Immunizations for children
No funds certain countries	Israeli drawdown

Immunizing children	No funds Ethiopia
cadets	No funds through transfer
child survival fund	Balance of funds
No funds specific countries	Child survival fund
Africa development foundation	Enlisted aids limit
US jobs	Foreign operation appropriation
Typewriters	Reimbursement
US job impact	Credited dept defense programs
Inter-American development bank	Creating commodity
defense equipment drawdown	Special authorities
Senior ROTC unit	Convert position
Arab league boycott	Lodging expense
No indirect funding certain countries	Fund authorization
anti narcotics activity	Retainer pay
Fund authorization	Debt relief agreement
Anti narcotics activities	CIA funds
Liberia assistance	Reciprocal leasing
Asian development bank	Middle east scholarship
salaries	Maintenance military
Asia development bank	Morale
Congressional influence	Foreign assistance act
Abortion	Contract
earmarked funds	No propaganda
Land purchase	Talks with El Salvador
oppose terrorist countries	South Africa scholarship
insignia	Commissaries
Middle east programs	Bilateral aid to terrorist countries
narcotics control	Use of American resources
Ejection seats	Middle east budget
commission on foreign assistance management	Turkish and Greek military
narcotics control program	Andean narcotics initiative
recover debt contracts	Unemployment benefits
Depleted Uranium	Commercially leased weapons
technician	Earmarks
Haiti aid	Medical care
Weapons to Turkey and Greece	Cambodia aid
debt relief	Second career training
Panama aid	Commercially leasing weapons
competitive insurance	No UN dues
funds to Afghanistan	Ireland aid
no aid terrorism	Funds to El Salvador
no aid parking fines	Disadvantaged enterprise

PLO aid	Unused money not taken away
No flood control	Fund provisions
No propaganda	Procurement contract
Report to Committees on Appropriations	Advances of money
Vehicle replacement	Dept of agriculture
Military Pensions	Vietnam
Cover travel expenses	Cap on funds
Uniforms	No hunting fishing
No military pension	No assistance Cuba
Compensation	Laos
Entertainment expenses	Uganda
Approve capital project	No funds: Cambodia
Car insurance	Laos Vietnam
Resale maintenance	Uganda
No Cuba	Transfers between accounts
No funds: Cambodia	Underdeveloped Countries
No personal employee	One year contracts
Foreign entity	No aid terrorist countries
Report funds	Medical care
Residence budget	Energy conservation
Laos	Afghanistan aid
childrens education	Aiding criminals and terrorists
Obligational authority	Finance loans
No communists	Cash disbursements
Residency expense fund	Program funding
Prisoner donation	No fund Ethiopia
Small business loans	Definition of program
Procurement contracts	ATB Program
Small business user fees	Military equipment transfer
Security clearances	Bosnia-Herzegovinia aid
Regulations	No funding competition
Title	Defense equipment
Military entertainment budget	and Recreation
fiscal year	El salvador notification
Assistance budget	Aid to Cambodia
Preference to allies	Purchasing Uranium
Fund approval	Reciprocal leasing
Include Laos	Bosnia-Herzogovinia aid
Construction in Underdeveloped countries	Chile loans
new facilities	Fiscal year law
No Foreign Currency	Liberian aid
countries in default	Fund transfer

No fund Ecuador	Eligibility for aid
Human rights aid	CIA fiscal year
Military coups	Debt relief agreements
Executive agency	Earmarks
Appropriations approval	Middle east scholarship
Appropriations committee approval	Welfare
Real property	Real property management
Loan cap	Authorization requirement
aircraft operating expense	Dependents of military
Certificate of ownership	Debt relief programs
Admin expense	Disadvantaged enterprises
moving household goods	Proof of contact with foreign countries
Committees on Appropriations	Cats
Underdeveloped countries	No fund Germany
No funds w/o representation	Influence Chinese bank
Administrator of General services	General authorization
No unchecked foreign aid	Nicaragua aid
No terrorism fund	Aid for Lebanon
Department budgets	Experiment fund
Economic assistance	Narcotics control
accepting real property	Transfer schools
Commodities acquired	Armenia aid
reporting requirement	Purchase dogs
Program aid	Funds to Ireland
Treasury funds	Guarantees
definition of terms	Consulting services
No ISTC fund	Eligibility aid
Pollution	Chemical weapon proliferation
commodity assistance	Montreal protocol
procurement fund	Loan payment
Construction	No funding abortion
family planning	Heating plants
Science and technology	Afghanistan aid
Notify executive branch	Human experiment
Reservation of funds	No funds Iraq
Records are public	Multiyear contract
Hawaii	Private voluntary orgs
Salaries	Military drawdown
Asian petroleum	Funds El Salvador
No inspector general fund	No aid Iraq
Payne county mining	Resettlement
International orgs	Transportation equipment

No Uruguay assistance	No funds Ethiopia
Land acquisition	Wigs
Lobby for abortion	Cash flow financing
No aid Cuba	No fund Ethiopia
Sr. reserve officers	Unused leave
Negotiating with PLO	Chile fund
Dept of defense	Uefinition of program
commercial transport	Public affairs budget
commercial leasing weapons	Oppose loans from chile
civilian clothing	37 people
Israeli economic support	Transfer of funds
no bilateral aid terrorist countries	No Funds Lebanon
Ratification	Leveraging and diversion
democracy contingency fund	Farmers home administration
commercial leasing of defense articles	Environmental concern
Contract for studies