Abstract
Tacit knowledge is important for organizations and management, but we lack adequate theory, and find conflicting claims about the concept. A review of empirical studies of tacit knowledge phenomena found the term has been applied to both articulable and inarticulable knowledge. It is suggested that in the interests of clarity use of the term should be limited to the latter. Tacit knowledge appears due to both experience with the particular objects it is applied to, and to general experiences. A solution to the problem of tacit knowledge explication is proposed, and implications of the study for both managerial and academic practice are outlined.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Alvesson M and Kärreman D (2001) Odd couple: making sense of the curious concept of knowledge management. Journal of Management Studies 38 (7), 995–1018.
Ambrosini V and Bowman C (2001) Tacit knowledge: some suggestions for operationalization. Journal of Management Studies 38 (6), 811–829.
André M, Borgquist L, Foldevi M and Mölstad S (2002) Asking for ‘rules of thumb’: a way to discover tacit knowledge in general practice. Family Practice 6, 617–622.
Argyris C (1999) Tacit knowledge and management. In Tacit Knowledge in Professional Practice (Sternberg RJ and Horvath JA, Eds), pp 123–140, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Mahwah, NJ.
Baumard P (1999) Tacit Knowledge in Organizations. Sage, London.
Berry DC and Dienes Z (1993) Implicit Learning. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Hove.
Boiral O (2002) Tacit knowledge and environmental management. Long Range Planning 35, 291–317.
Borrell-Carrió F and Epstein RM (2004) Preventing errors in clinical practice: a call for self-awareness. Annals of Family Medicine 2 (4), 310–316.
Bou E and Sauquet A (2004) Reflecting on quality practices through knowledge management theory: uncovering grey zones and new possibilities of process manuals, flowcharts and procedures. Knowledge Management Research & Practice 2, 35–47.
Choo CW (1998) The Knowing Organization: How Organizations Use Information to Construct Meaning. Oxford University Press, Oxford.
Colis D (1996) Organizational capability as a source of profit. In Organizational Learning and Competitive Advantage (Moingeon B and Edmondson A, Eds), pp 139–163, Sage, London.
Collins HM (1974) The TEA set: tacit knowledge and scientific networks. Science Studies 4, 165–186.
Collins HM (2001a) Tacit knowledge, trust, and the Q of sapphire. Social studies of science 31 (1), 71–85.
Collins HM (2001b) What is tacit knowledge? In The Practice Turn in Contemporary Theory (Schatzki TR, Knorr Cetina K and von Savigny E, Eds), pp 107–119, Routledge, London.
Cook SDN and Brown JS (1999) Bridging epistemologies and the generative dance between organizational knowledge and organizational knowing. Organization Science 10 (4), 381–400.
Cowan R, David PA and Foray D (2000) The explicit economics of knowledge codification and tacitness. Industrial and corporate change 9 (2), 211–253.
Donaldson L (2001) Reflections on knowledge and knowledge-intensive firms. Human Relations 54 (7), 955–963.
Easterby-Smith M and Lyles MA (2003) Introduction: watersheds of organizational learning and knowledge management. In The Blackwell Handbook of Organizational Learning and Knowledge Management (Easterby-Smith M and Lyles MA, Eds), pp 1–15, Blackwell Publishing Ltd, Oxford.
Frith C and Wolpert D (2004) The Neuroscience of Social Interaction. Oxford University Press, Oxford.
Gottlieb G (2001) A developmental psychobiological systems view: early formulation and current status. In Cycles of Contingency. Developmental Systems and Evolutions (Oyama S, Griffiths PE and Gray RD, Eds) pp 41–54, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA.
Gourlay SN (2004) Knowing as semiosis: steps towards a reconceptualization of ‘tacit knowledge’. In Organizations as Knowledge Systems (Tsoukas H and Mylonopoulos N, Eds), pp 86–105, Palgrave Macmillan, London.
Gourlay SN (forthcoming) Conceptualizing knowledge creation: a critique of Nonaka's theory. Journal of Management Studies.
Herbig B and Büssing A (2003) Comparison of the role of explicit and implicit knowledge in working. Psychology Science 45 (3), 165–188.
Herbig B, Büssing A and Ewert T (2001) The role of tacit knowledge in the work context of nursing. Journal of Advanced Nursing 34 (5), 687–695.
Horvath JA, Forsythe GB, Bullis RC, Sweeny PJ, Williams WM, McNally JA, Wattendorf JA and Sternberg RJ (1999) Experience, knowledge, and military leadership. In Tacit Knowledge in Professional Practice (Sternberg RJ and Horvath JA, Eds), pp 39–58, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Mahwah, NJ.
Huff AS (1990) Mapping Strategic Thought. John Wiley & Sons, Chichester.
Hurley S and Chater N (2005) Perspectives on Imitation. From Neuroscience to Social Science (2 vols). MIT Press, Cambridge, MA.
Ichijo K, von Krogh G and Nonaka I (1998) Knowledge enablers. In Knowing in Firms. Understanding, Managing and Measuring Knowledge (von Krogh G, Roos J and Kleine D, Eds), pp 173–203, Sage, London.
Janik A (1988) Tacit knowledge, working life and scientific method. In Knowledge, Skill and Artificial Intelligence (Göranzon B and Josefson I, Eds), pp 53–63, Springer-Verlag, London.
Johannessen J-A, Olaisen J and Olsen B (2001) Mismanagement of tacit knowledge: the importance of tacit knowledge, the danger of information technology, and what to do about it. International Journal of Information Management 21, 3–20.
Josefson I (1988) The nurse as engineer – the theory of knowledge in research in the care sector. In Knowledge, Skill and Artificial Intelligence (Göranzon B and Josefson I, Eds), pp 19–30, Springer-Verlag, London.
Kakihara M and SØrensen C (2002) Exploring knowledge emergence: from chaos to organizational knowledge. Journal of Global Information Technology Management 5 (3), 48–66.
Lado AA and Wilson MC (1994) Human resource systems and sustained competitive advantage: a competency-based perspective. Academy of Management Review 19 (4), 699–727.
Lam A (1997) Embedded firms, embedded knowledge: problems of collaboration and knowledge transfer in global cooperative ventures. Organization Studies 18 (6), 973–996.
Leonard D and Sensiper S (1998) The role of tacit knowledge in group innovation. California Management Review 40 (3), 112–132.
Lewicki P, Hill T and Czyzewska M (1997) Hidden covariation detection: a fundamental and ubiquitous phenomenon. Journal of Experimental Psychology-Learning Memory and Cognition 23 (1), 221–228.
MacKenzie D and Spinardi G (1996) Tacit knowledge, weapons design and the uninvention of nuclear weapons. In Knowing Machines (MacKenzie D, Ed), pp 215–260, MIT Press, Boston, MA.
Marchant G and Robinson J (1999) Is knowing the tax code all it takes to be a tax expert? On the development of legal expertise. In Tacit Knowledge in Professional Practice (Sternberg RJ and Horvath JA, Eds), pp 3–20, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Mahwah, NJ.
Myers PS (1996) Knowledge Management and Organizational Design. Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford.
Nadeau R (2004) Has Hayek Refuted Market Socialism? Cahiers d'Epistémologie 313(2004-01), Université du Québec á Montréal, Montréal (Québec), [WWW document] http://www.unites.uqam.ca/philo/pdf/Nadeau2004-01.pdf (accessed 23 December 2005).
Nelson R and Winter S (1982) An Evolutionary Theory of Economic Change. Belknap Press, Cambridge, MA.
Nonaka I (1991) The knowledge-creating company. Harvard Business Review 69 (6), 96–104.
Nonaka I and Takeuchi H (1995) The Knowledge-Creating Company. Oxford University Press, New York, Oxford.
Patel VL, Arocha JF and Kaufman DR (1999) Expertise and tacit knowledge in medicine. In Tacit Knowledge in professional Practice (Sternberg RJ and Horvath JA, Eds), pp 75–100, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Mahwah, NJ.
Phillips M (1992) Breath tests in medicine. Scientific American 267 (1), 74–79.
Pleasants N (1996) Nothing is concealed: de-centring tacit knowledge and rules from social theory. Journal for the theory of social behaviour 26 (3), 233–255.
Polanyi M (1966) The Tacit Dimension. Routledge & Kegan Paul Ltd, London.
Reber AS (1993) Implicit Learning and Tacit Knowledge. Clarendon Press, Oxford.
Scharmer CO (2000) Organizing around not-yet-embodied knowledge. In Knowledge Creation. A Source of Value (von Krogh G, Nonaka I and Nichiguchi T, Eds), pp 13–60, Macmillan Press, Basingstoke.
Schatzki TR (1996) Social Practices. A Wittgensteinian Approach to Human Activity and the Social. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Spender J-C (1996) Competitive advantage from tacit knowledge? Unpacking the concept and its strategic implication. In Organizational Learning and Competitive Advantage (Moingeon B and Edmondson A, Eds), pp 56–73, Sage, London.
Stadler MI and Frensch PA (Eds) (1998) Handbook of Implicit Learning. Sage, London.
Strauss A and Corbin J (1990) Basics of Qualitative Research. Sage, Newbury Park, CA.
Thompson P (1983) The Nature of Work. Macmillan, Basingstoke.
Torff B (1999) Tacit knowledge in teaching: folk pedagogy and teacher education. In Tacit Knowledge in Professional Practice (Sternberg RJ and Horvath JA, Eds), pp 195–214, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Mahwah, NJ.
Tsoukas H (2003) Do we really understand tacit knowledge? In The Blackwell Handbook of Organizational Learning and Knowledge Management (Easterby-Smith M and Lyles MA, Eds), pp 410–427, Blackwell Publishing Ltd, Oxford.
Tsoukas H and Vladimirou E (2001) What is organizational knowledge? Journal of Management Studies 38 (7), 973–993.
Wagner RK and Sternberg RJ (1985) Practical intelligence in real-world pursuits: the role of tacit knowledge. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 49 (2), 436–458.
Wagner RK and Sternberg RJ (1986) Tacit knowledge and intelligence in the everyday world. In Practical Intelligence (Sternberg RJ and Wagner RK, Eds), pp 51–83, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Wagner RK and Sternberg RJ (1991) Tacit Knowledge Inventory for Managers. The Psychological Corporation, San Antonio.
Wagner RK, Sujan J, Sujan M, Rashotte CA and Sternberg RJ (1999) Tacit knowledge in sales. In Tacit Knowledge in Professional Practice (Sternberg RJ and Horvath JA, Eds), pp 155–182, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Mahwah, NJ.
Willman P, Fenton O'Creevy MP, Nicholson N and Soane E (2001) Knowing the risks: theory and practice in financial markets trading. Human Relations 54 (7), 887–910.
Wyer RS (1997) The Automaticity of Everyday Life. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Mahwah, NJ.
Acknowledgements
My thanks to two anonymous reviewers and the editors for comments on earlier versions of this article which led me to clarify the argument, and to participants at the 5th Organizational Knowledge, Learning, and Capabilities Conference, Innsbruck, Austria, for comments on an earlier version of the arguments.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Gourlay, S. Towards conceptual clarity for ‘tacit knowledge’: a review of empirical studies. Knowl Manage Res Pract 4, 60–69 (2006). https://doi.org/10.1057/palgrave.kmrp.8500082
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1057/palgrave.kmrp.8500082