Abstract
The division of IR theory into the ‘holy trinity’ of the three ‘isms’ (realism, liberalism and constructivism) is the most common classification of theories in the field. While this division has numerous theoretical benefits, it also has some major shortcomings with regard to the conceptualization of substantive changes in world politics, especially in the post-Cold War security order. In order to better capture conceptually these changes and also to be able to provide falsifiable predictions, we offer a novel conceptual classification based on three key factors: (i) the level of analysis used by the approach; (ii) whether the state continues to be the central actor in the international system and (iii) whether the post-Cold War international system is more peaceful in relation to previous eras. Each of the approaches identified in this work – ‘Liberal/Constructivist Optimists’, ‘Hegemonic Optimists’, ‘New Conflict Pessimists’ and ‘Balance of Power Pessimists’ – highlights different and sometimes contradictory aspects of these developments. We probe the empirical applicability of this novel typology on a sequential time base since the end of the Cold War and find that each of these approaches accounts for the major patterns of the international security order in a given time period but not in other periods. We also briefly identify the conditions under which each one perspective is more valid than the others for accounting for key patterns of international security.
Similar content being viewed by others
Notes
Another important pessimistic prediction was Kaplan (1994). Even though it differed from Huntington’s view quite a bit, we highlight some basic similarities inside the framework of the same ‘pessimist’ approach.
It is true that constructivism provides a more general paradigm focusing on ideas, norms and identities, which can also capture illiberal ones, but as a matter of fact most constructivists have advanced ideas and norms which are close to liberalism (see Moravcsik, 1997, pp. 539–540; for a partial qualification see Barnett, 1997, pp. 550–551).
See Mearsheimer (1994/1995), who was criticized by neoliberal institutionalists (Keohane and Martin, 1995), liberals (Kupchan and Kupchan, 1995) and a constructivist (Wendt, 1995).
For a critical review of different theoretical approaches to the balance of power, see Little (2007). On theoretical, regional and policy aspects of the balance of power in the post-Cold War era, see Paul et al. (2004). For competing theoretical perspectives on the balance of power, see Vasquez and Elman (2003).
For different perspectives on post-Cold War US hegemony, see Zartman (2009). For a liberal perspective, see Ikenberry (2011).
For different theoretical perspectives on unipolarity, see Ikenberry et al. (2011).
References
Adler, E. and Barnett, M. (eds.) (1998) Security Communities. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Agnew, J.A. (2005) Hegemony: The New Shape of Global Power. Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press.
Art, R.J. (1991) A defensible defense: America’s grand strategy after the cold war. International Security 15 (4): 5–53.
Art, R.J. (2003) A Grand Strategy for America. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.
Ayoob, M. (1995) The Third World Security Predicament. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner.
Barnett, M.N. (1997) Bringing in the new world order: Liberalism, legitimacy, and the United Nations. World Politics 49 (4): 526–551.
Barnett, M. and Duvall, R. (eds.) (2004) Power in Global Governance. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Betts, R.K. (2010) Conflict or cooperation? Three visions revisited. Foreign Affairs 89 (6): 186–194.
Brooks, S.G. and Wohlforth, W.C. (2008) World out of Balance. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Bull, H. (1977) The Anarchical Society: A Study of Order in World Politics. New York: Columbia University Press.
Bush, G. and Scowcroft, B. (1998) A World Transformed. New York: Knopf.
Carothers, T. (1994) The democratic nostrum. World Policy Journal 11 (3): 47–53.
Cha, V.D. (2000) Globalization and the study of international security. Journal of Peace Research 37 (3): 391–403.
Claude, I. (1962) Power and International Relations. New York: Random House.
Cohen, S.P. (1992) U.S. Security in a separatists season. Bulletin of Atomic Scientists 48 (6): 28–32.
Finnemore, M. (1996) National Interests in International Society. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.
Finnemore, M. (2003) The Purpose of Intervention: Changing Beliefs about the Use of Force. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.
Flynn, G. and Farrell, H. (1999) Piecing together the democratic peace: The CSCE, norms, and the ‘construction’ of security in post-cold war Europe. International Organization 53 (3): 505–535.
Frederking, B. (2003) Constructing post-cold war collective security. American Political Science Review 97: 363–378.
Friedberg, A.L. (2005) The future of U.S.-China relations: Is conflict inevitable? International Security 30 (2): 7–45.
Fukuyama, F. (1989) The end of history? The National Interest 16: 3–18.
Fukuyama, F. (1992) The End of History and the Last Man. New York: Free Press.
Fukuyama, F. (2004) The imperatives of state-building. Journal of Democracy 15 (2): 17–31.
Ghani, A. and Lockhart, C. (2008) Fixing Failed States: A Framework for Rebuilding a Fractured World. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Gilpin, R.G. (1981) War and Change in World Politics. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Gilpin, R.G. (1996) No one loves a political realist. In: B. Frankel (ed.) Realism: Restatements and Renewal. London and Portland, OR: Frank Cass.
Gilpin, R. (2001) Global Political Economy: Understanding the International Economic Order. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Gros, J.-G. (1996) Towards a taxonomy of failed states in the new world order: Decaying Somalia, Liberia, Rwanda and Haiti. Third World Quarterly 17 (3): 455–471.
Guehenno, J.-M. (1995) The End of the Nation-State. Minneapolis, MN: The University of Minnesota Press.
Haims, M.C., Gompert, D.C., Treverton, G.F. and Stearns, B.K. (2008) Breaking the Failed-State Cycle. Santa Barbara, CA: Rand.
Harrison, E. (2004) The Post-Cold War International System: Strategies, Institutions and Reflexivity. London: Routledge.
Held, D. (1995) Democracy and the Global Order: From the Modern State to Cosmopolitan Governance. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
Helman, G.B. and Ratner, S.R. (1992–1993) Saving failed state. Foreign Policy 89: 3–20.
Hobson, J.M. (2000) The State and International Relations. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Hoffmann, S. (1998) World Disorders: Troubled Peace in the Post-Cold War Era. Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield.
Holsti, K. J. (1996). War, The State, and the State of War. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Huntington, S.P. (1968) Political Order in Changing Societies. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
Huntington, S.P. (1993a) The clash of civilizations? Foreign Affairs 72 (3): 22–49.
Huntington, S.P. (1993b) Why international primacy matters. International Security 17 (4): 68–83.
Huntington, S.P. (1996) The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order. New York: Simon & Schuster.
Hurrell, A. (2007) On global order: Power, Values, and the Constitution of International Society. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Ikenberry, J.G. (1998/1999) Institutions, strategic restraint, and the persistence of american postwar order. International Security 23 (3): 43–78.
Ikenberry, J.G. (2001) After Victory: Institutions, Strategic Restraint and the Rebuilding of Order after Major Wars. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Ikenberry, J.G. (2011) Liberal Leviathan. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Ikenberry, J.G., Mastanduno, M. and Wohlforth, C. (eds.) (2011) International Relations Theory and the Consequences of Unipolarity. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge UP.
Jervis, R. (2002) Theories of war in an era of leading-power peace. American Political Science Review 96 (1): 1–14.
Job, B. (ed.) (1992) The Insecurity Dilemma: National Security of Third World States. Boulder: Rienner.
Kagan, R. (1998) The benevolent empire. Foreign Policy 111: 24–35.
Kagan, R. (2012) The World America Made. New York: Knopf.
Kaldor, M. (2003) Global Civil Society: An Answer to War. Cambridge, UK: Polity Press.
Kaldor, M. (2006) New and Old Wars: Organized Violence in a Global Era. Cambridge: Polity Press.
Kaldor, M., Selchow, S. and Moore, H.L. (eds.) (2012) Global Civil Society 2012: Ten Years of Critical Reflection. London: Palgrave Macmillan.
Kaplan, R.D. (1994) The coming anarchy. The Atlantic Monthly 273: 44–76.
Kaplan, R.D. (1997) The Ends of the Earth: From Togo to Turkmenistan, from Iran to Cambodia – A Journey to the Frontiers of Anarchy. New York: Vintage Books.
Kaplan, R.D. (2000) The Coming Anarchy: Shattering the Dreams of the Post Cold War. New York: Random House.
Katzenstein, P. (1996) The Culture of National Security: Norms and Identity in World Politics. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.
Keane, J. (2003) Global Civil Society? Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Keating, M. (ed.) (2001) Minority Nationalism, and the Changing International Order. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Keck, M.E. and Sikkink, K. (1998) Activists Beyond Borders. Advocacy Networks in International Politics. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.
Kennedy, P. (1987) The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers: Economic Change and Military Conflict from 1500 to 2000. New York: Random House.
Keohane, R.O. (1980) The theory of hegemonic stability and changes in international economic regimes, 1967–1977. In: O.R. Holsti, R. Siverson and A. George (eds.) Changes in the International System. Boulder, CO: Westview.
Keohane, R.O. (1984) After Hegemony: Cooperation and Discord in the World Political Economy. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Keohane, R.O. and Martin, L.L. (1995) The promise of institutionalist theory. International Security 20 (1): 39–51.
Krasner, S.D. (2004) Sharing sovereignty: New institutions for collapsed and failing states. International Security 29 (2): 85–120.
Krauthammer, C. (1990/1991) The unipolar moment. Foreign Affairs 70 (1): 23–33.
Kupchan, C.A. and Kupchan, C.A. (1995) The promise of collective security. International Security 20 (1): 52–61.
Lake, A. (1993) From Containment to Enlargement. Washington DC: Johns Hopkins University School of Advanced International Studies.
Lake, D.A. (2011) Why ‘isms’ are evil: Theory, Epistemology, and academic sects as impediments to understanding and progress. International Studies Quarterly 55 (2): 465–480.
Lake, D.A. (1984) Beneath the commerce of nations: A theory of international economic structures. International Studies Quarterly 28 (2): 143–170.
Layne, C. (1993) The unipolar illusion: Why new great powers will rise. International Security 17 (4): 5–51.
Layne, C. (1997) From preponderance to offshore balancing: America’s future grand strategy. International Security 22 (1): 86–124.
Layne, C. (2006) The Peace of Illusions: American Grand Strategy From 1940 to the Present. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.
Layne, C. and Schwarz, B. (1993) American hegemony:Without an enemy. Foreign Policy 92: 5–23.
Lipset, S.M. (1997) American Exceptionalism: A Double-Edged Sword. New York: W.W. Norton.
Little, R. (2007) The Balance of Power in International Relations. Cambridge, UK: Cambidge University Press.
Lowenheim, O. (2007) Predators and Parasites: Persistent Agents of Transnational Harm and Great Power Authority. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press.
Lynn-Jones, S.M. and Miller, S.E. (2001) The Cold War and After: Prospects for Peace. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Maliniak, D., Amy, O., Susan, P. and Michael, J.T. (2011) International relations in the US academy. International Studies Quarterly 55 (2): 437–464.
Mann, M. (1993) The Sources of Social Power, Vol. 2. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge UP.
Mansbach, R.W. (2002) Deterritorializing global politics. In: D.J. Puchala (ed.) Visions of International Relations: Assessing an Academic Field. Columbia, SC: University of South Carolina Press.
Mansfield, E.D. and Snyder, J. (1995) Democratization and the danger of war. International Security 20 (1): 5–38.
Maoz, Z. and Russett, B. (1993) Normative and structural causes of democratic peace, 1946–1986. The American Political Science Review 87 (3): 624–638.
Mastanduno, M. (2002) Incomplete hegemony and security order in the Asia-Pacific. In: G. John Ikenberry (ed.) America Unrivaled: The Future of the Balance of Power. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.
Mathews, J.T. (1997) Power Shift, Foreign Affairs, January/February.
Maynes, C.W. (1993) Containing ethnic conflict. Foreign Policy 90: 3–21.
McGrew, A.G. (ed.) (1997) Globalization and territorial democracy: An introduction. In: The Transformation of Democracy? Globalization and Territorial Democracy. Cambridge, UK: Polity.
Mead, W.R. (2002) Special Providence: American Foreign Policy and How it Changed the World. New York and London: Routledge.
Mearsheimer, J.J. (1990a) Why We Will Soon Miss the Cold War. The Atlantic 266: 35–50.
Mearsheimer, J.J. (1990b) Back to the future: Instability in Europe after the cold war. International Security 15 (1): 5–56.
Mearsheimer, J. J. (1994/95) The false promise of international institutions. International Security 19 (3): 5–49.
Mearsheimer, J.J. (2001) The Tragedy of Great Power Politics. New York: W.W. Norton.
Migdal, J.S. (1988) Strong Societies and Weak States: State-Society Relations and State Capabilities in the Third World. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Miller, B. (2002) When Opponents Cooperate: Great Power Conflict and Collaboration in World Politics. Ann Arbor, MI: The University of Michigan Press. Second/Paperback Edition.
Miller, B. (2007) States, Nations and the Great Powers: The Sources of Regional War and Peace. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Modelski, G. (1978) The long cycle of global politics and the nation-state. Comparative Studies in Society and History 20 (2): 214–235.
Modelski, G. (1987) Long Cycles in World Politics. London: Palgrave Macmillan.
Moravcsik, A. (1997) Taking preferences seriously: A liberal theory of international politics. International Organization 51 (4): 513–553.
Morgenthau, H.J. (1973) Politics Among Nations: The Struggle for Power and Peace, 5th edn. New York: Alfred A. Knopf.
Nau, H.R. (2011) No alternative to “Isms”. International Studies Quarterly 55 (2): 487–491.
Nye, J.S. (2004) Soft Power: The Means to Success in World Politics. New York: PublicAffairs.
Nye, J.S. (1992) What new world order? Foreign Affairs 71 (2): 83–96.
Olson, M. (1971) The Logic of Collective Action: Public Goods and the Theory of Groups. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Oneal, J.R. and Russett, B.M. (1997) The classical liberals were right: Democracy, interdependence, and conflict, 1950–1985. International Studies Quarterly 41 (2): 267–293.
Oneal, J.R. and Russett, B. (2001) Clear and clean: the fixed effects of the liberal peace. International Organization 55 (2): 469–485.
Organski, A.F.K. (1968) World Politics, 2nd edn. New York: Knopf.
Organski, A.F.K. and Kugler, J. (1980) The War Ledger. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
Paris, R. (2004) At War's End: Building Peace after Civil Conflict. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Patman, R.G. (ed.) (1999) Security in a Post-Cold War World. Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave Macmillan Press.
Patrick, S. (2011) Weak Links: Fragile States, Global Threats, and International Security. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Paul, T.V., Wirtz, J. and Fortmann, M. (eds.) (2004) Balance of Power: Theory and Practice in the 21st Century. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
Posen, B.R. (1984) The Sources of Military Doctrine: France, Britain, and Germany between the World Wars. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.
Rathbun, B. (2012) Politics and paradigms references: The implicit ideology of international relations scholars. International Studies Quarterly 56 (3): 607–622.
Ray, J.L. (1995) Democracy and International Conflict: An Evaluation of the Democratic Peace Proposition. Columbia, SC: University of South Carolina Press.
Rice, C. (2005) The promise of democratic peace. Washington Post 11 December.
Risse-Kappen, T. (1995) Democratic peace – Warlike democracies? A social constructivist interpretation of the liberal argument. European Journal of International Relations 1 (4): 491–517.
Rosecrance, R.N. (1986) The Rise of the Trading State. New York: Basic Books.
Rosecrance, R. (1987) Long cycle theory and international relations. International Organization 41 (2): 283–301.
Rosecrance, R.N. (1999) The Rise of the Virtual State. Wealth and Power in the Coming Century. New York: Basic Books.
Rotberg, R.I. (2002) Failed states in a world of terror. Foreign Affairs 81 (4): 127–141.
Russett, B.M. (1993) Grasping the Democratic Peace: Principles for a post-Cold War World. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Schimmelfenni, F. (2000) International socialization in the new europe: Rational action in an institutional environment. European Journal of International Relations 6 (1): 109–139.
Scholte, J.A. (2000) Globalization: A Critical Introduction. London: Palgrave Macmillan.
Schweller, R.L. (1994) Bandwagoning for profit: Bringing the revisionist state back in. International Security 19 (1): 72–107.
Seymour, M. (ed.) (2004) The Fate of the Nation State. Montreal: McGill-Queen’s University Press.
Sheetz, M. (1997/98) Correspondence: Debating the unipolar moment. International Security 22 (3): 168–172.
Shah, T.S., Stepan, A.C. and Toft, M.D. (eds.) (2012) Rethinking Religion and World Affairs. New York: Oxford University Press.
Shapiro, M.J. and Alker, H.R. (1996) Challenging Boundaries: Global Flows, Territorial Identities. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press.
Shultz, R.H. and Dew, A. (2009) Insurgents, Terrorists, and Militias: The Warriors of Contemporary Combat. New York: Columbia University Press.
Sil, R. and Katzenstein, P.J. (2010) Beyond Paradigms: Analytic Eclecticism in the Study of World Politics. London and New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
Sil, R. and Katzenstein, P.J. (2011) De-centering, not discarding, the ‘isms’: Some friendly amendments. International Studies Quarterly 55 (2): 481–485.
Slaughter, A.-M. (2004) A New World Order. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Snyder, J.L. (2004) One world, rival theories. Foreign Policy 145: 53–62.
Snyder, J. (ed.) (2011) Religion and International Relations Theory. New York: Columbia University Press.
Sørensen, G. (2004) The Tranformation of the State: Beyond the Myth of Retreat. Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave Macmillan.
Sørensen, G. (2011) A Liberal World Order in Crisis: Choosing between Imposition and Restraint. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.
Traub, J. (2011) Think again: Failed states. Foreign Policy 187: 51–54.
Tyler, P.E. (1992) U.S. Strategy Plan Calls for Insuring No Rivals Develop A One-Superpower World. New York Times 8 March.
Van Creveld, M. (1991) The Transformation of War. New York: Free Press.
Van Evera, S. (1990–1991) Primed for peace: Europe after the cold war. International Security 15 (3): 7–57.
Van Evera, S. (1999) Causes of War: Power and the Roots of Conflict. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.
Vasquez, J.A. and Elman, C. (2003) Realism and the Balancing of Power: A New Debate. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Pearson.
Walt, S.M. (1987) The Origins of Alliances. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.
Walt, S.M. (1998) International relations: One world, many theories. Foreign Policy 110: 29–46.
Walt, S.M. (2011) The end of the American era. The National Interest 116: 6–16.
Waltz, K.N. (2009) The United States: Alone in the world. In: I.W. Zartman (ed.) Imbalance of Power: US Hegemony and International Order. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner.
Waltz, K.N. (2000) Structural realism after the cold war. International Security 25 (1): 5–41.
Waltz, K.N. (1999) Globalization and governance. PS: Political Science and Politics 32 (4): 693–700.
Waltz, K.N. (1993) The emerging structure of international politics. International Security 18 (2): 44–79.
Waltz, K.N. (1979) Theory of International Politics. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
Waltz, K.N. (1959) Man, the State and War. New York: Columbia University Press.
Ward, M.D. and Gleditsch, K.S. (1998) Democratizing for peace. The American Political Science Review 92 (1): 51–61.
Wendt, A. (1999) Social Theory of International Politics. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Wendt, A. (1992) Anarchy is what states make of it: The social construction of power politics. International Organization 46 (2): 391–425.
Wendt, A. (1995) Constructing international politics. International Security 20 (1): 71–81.
Wohlforth, W.C. (1999) The stability of a unipolar world. International Security 24 (1): 5–41.
Wohlforth, W.C. (1994–1995) Realism and the end of the cold war. International Security 19 (3): 91–129.
Zakaria, F. (1998) From Wealth to Power: The Unusual Origins of America's World Role. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Zartman, W.I. (ed.) (2009) Imbalance of Power: US Hegemony and International Order. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Miller, B., Saltzman, I. Beyond the three ‘isms’: Rethinking IR and the post-cold war order. Int Polit 53, 385–414 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1057/ip.2016.3
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1057/ip.2016.3