Skip to main content
Log in

Counterterrorism and race

  • Original Article
  • Published:
International Politics Reviews Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

This article examines the field of counterterrorism and race in the context of international relations (IR) scholarship. The article identifies noteworthy texts for examining situated knowledge and individual experiences of counterterrorism as a form of IR-relevant inquiry. Drawing on the fields of postcolonialism, sociology, and legal and terrorism studies, this paper identifies the real-world challenges that academics of counterterrorism and race are responding to, the analytical frameworks they utilise, and the key questions they collectively pose for IR. The article finishes by presenting the problem of how to reconcile two understandings of race: one, upheld by those with state-endorsed counterterrorism knowledge with more academic understandings of race, and another disconnected from a wider politics and submerged in colonial/imperial histories.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Similar content being viewed by others

Notes

  1. This article does not engage with contestations concerning the existence of such fields [i.e. the case against critical terrorism studies or vice versa], but it does acknowledge that authors who are members of these distinct disciplines make significant contributions to inquiries regarding the ways in which governments of the Global North pursue counterterrorism.

References

  • Abbas, T., & Awan, I. (2015). Limits of UK counterterrorism policy and its implications for Islamophobia and far right extremism. International Journal for Crime, Justice, and Social Democracy, 4(3), 16–19.

    Google Scholar 

  • Abu-Bakare, A. (2017). Why race matters: Examining ‘terrorism’ through race in international relations. E-International Relations. [online]. Available from: https://www.e-ir.info/2017/05/09/why-race-matters-examining-terrorism-through-race-in-international-relations/?utm_content=buffere251a&utm_medium=social&utm_source=twitter.com&utm_campaign=buffer. Accessed 7 October 2018.

  • Anievas, A., Manchanda, N., & Shilliam, R. (2015). Confronting the global colour line: An introduction. In A. Anievas, N. Manchanda, & R. Shilliam (Eds.), Race and racism in international relations: Confronting the global colour line (pp. 1–17). Oxon: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Anthias, F., & Yuval-Davis, N. (2005). Racialized boundaries: Race, nation, gender, colour and class and the anti-racist struggle. New York: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • APPG on British Muslims. (2019) Islamophobia defined: The inquiry into a working definition of Islamophobia. Report on the inquiry into a working definition of Islamophobia/anti-Muslim hatred. London: Palace of Westminster. https://static1.squarespace.com/static/599c3d2febbd1a90cffdd8a9/t/5bfd1ea3352f531a6170ceee/1543315109493/Islamophobia+Defined.pdf.

  • Awan, I. (2013). International strategies for preventing extremism and terrorism. In I. Awan & B. Blakemore (Eds.), Extremism, counter-terrorism and policing (pp. 69–83). Abingdon: Ashgate Publishing.

    Google Scholar 

  • Awan, I., & Zempi, I. (2017). “We are accused of being ISIS terrorists”: The experiences of non-Muslim men who suffer Islamophobia because they look Muslim a briefing paper prepared for the all party parliamentary group on British Muslims. Briefing Paper. APPG on British Muslims. London: Palace of Westminster.

  • Barkawi, T., & Laffey, M. (2006). The postcolonial moment in security studies. Review of International Studies, 32, 329–352.

    Google Scholar 

  • BBC. (2017). Black lives matter heathrow protesters found guilty. News Media. BBC News. 19 January 2017. https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-london-38677126.

  • Belew, K. (2019). Bring the war home: The white power movement and paramilitary America. United States of America: Harvard University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Benjamin, W. (1974). On the concept of history. presented at the Gesammelte Schriften I:2., Suhrkamp Verlag. Frankfurt am Main. http://www.arts.yorku.ca/soci/barent/wp-content/uploads/2008/10/benjaminconcept_of_history1.pdf.

  • Bhabha, F. (2013). “Islands of empowerment”: Anti-discrimination law and the question of racial emancipation. Windsor Yearbook of Access to Justice, 31(2), 65–87.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bhambra, G. (2017). Locating brexit in the pragmatics of race, citizenship and empire. In W. Outhwaite (Ed.), Brexit: Sociological responses (pp. 91–101). London: Anthem Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Blain, K. (2018). I lifted up mine eyes to Ghana. Jacobin, 27 August 2018. https://jacobinmag.com/2018/08/w-e-b-du-bois-colonialism-pan-african-congress.

  • Bonilla-Silva, E., & Zuberi, Tukufu. (2008). Toward a definition of white logic and white method. In E. Bonilla-Silva & T. Zuberi (Eds.), White logic, white methods: Racism and methodology (pp. 2–27). Plymouth: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers.

    Google Scholar 

  • Browdy, R. (2018). Patrisse Khan-Cullors’s and when they call you a terrorist: A black lives matter memoir: Storytelling as black feminist counter-attack on mis-labelling of black identity: # BlackLivesMatter: Pasts, presents, and futures. Prose Studies, 40(1–2), 15–39.

    Google Scholar 

  • Burke, A. (2008). The end of terrorism studies. Critical Studies on Terrorism, 1(1), 37–49. https://doi.org/10.1080/17539150701848241.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chakraborty, C. (2015). Official apology, creative remembrances, and management of the Air India tragedy. Studies in Canadian Literature/Études En Littérature Canadienne, 40(1), 111–130.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cherney, A., & Murphy, K. (2016). What does it mean to be a moderate Muslim in the war on terror? Muslim interpretations and reactions. Critical Studies on Terrorism, 9(2), 159–181.

    Google Scholar 

  • Coates, T. (2015). Between the world and me. New York: Random House.

    Google Scholar 

  • Crenshaw, M. (1981). The causes of terrorism. Comparative Politics, 13(4), 379–399.

    Google Scholar 

  • Crenshaw, M. (1991). How terrorism declines. Terrorism and Political Violence, 3(1), 69–87.

    Google Scholar 

  • Crenshaw, M. (2001). Counterterrorism policy and the political process. Studies in Conflict and Terrorism, 24(5), 329–337.

    Google Scholar 

  • Crenshaw, M. (2011). Explaining terrorism: Causes, processes and consequences., Case series on political violence Oxon: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dearden, L. (2019). Proposed Islamophobia definition “would undermine counterterror operations and threaten free speech”. Police Tell Prime Minister. News media. Independent. 15 May 2019. https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/islamophobia-meaning-definition-terror-operations-theresa-may-appg-british-muslims-a8914686.html.

  • Delphy, C. (2015). Separate and dominate: Feminism and racism after the war on terror. London: Verso.

    Google Scholar 

  • Du Bois, W. E. B. (1903). Souls of black folk., Electronic classics series Pennsylvania: Pennsylvania State University.

    Google Scholar 

  • Du Bois, W. E. B. (1925). Worlds of Color. Foreign Affairs, 3(3), 423–444.

    Google Scholar 

  • English, R. (2018). Change and continuity across the 9/11 fault line: rethinking twenty-first-century responses to terrorism. Critical Studies on Terrorism, 12(1), 78–88.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fanon, F. (1952). Black skin, white masks. London: Pluto Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fergusson, J., & Ahmed, K. (2017). Canada’s national counterterrorism strategy and challenges of community based intervention in counteringradicalization. In S. Nicholas Romaniuk, F. Grice, D. Irrera, & S. Webb (Eds.), The palgrave handbook of global counterterrorism policy (pp. 195–222). London: Palgrave.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fitzgerald, J. (2015). Why me? An autoethnographic account of the bizarre logic of counterterrorism. Critical Studies on Terrorism, 8(1), 63–180.

    Google Scholar 

  • Forcese, C., & Roach, K. (2015). False security: The radicalization of Canadian anti-terrorism. Toronto: Irwin Law.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gantt, J. (2010). Irish terrorism in the Atlantic community, 1865–1922. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.

    Google Scholar 

  • Garner, S. (2010). Racisms: An introduction. London: SAGE Publications.

    Google Scholar 

  • Garner, S., & Selod, S. (2015). The racialization of Muslims: Empirical studies of Islamophobia. Critical Sociology, 4(1), 9–19.

    Google Scholar 

  • Goodale, R. (2019). 2018 Public report on the terrorist threat to Canada 3rd revision, April 2019 (pp. 1–31). [online]. Available from: https://www.publicsafety.gc.ca/cnt/rsrcs/pblctns/pblc-rprt-trrrsm-thrt-cnd-2018/pblc-rprt-trrrsm-thrt-cnd-2018-en.pdf. Accessed 7 January 2019.

  • Grewal, I. (2003). Transnational America: Race, gender and citizenship after 9/11. Social Identities, 9(4), 535–561.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gunning, J. (2007). A case for critical terrorism studies? Government and Opposition, 42(3), 363–393.

    Google Scholar 

  • Henderson, E. (2015). Hidden in plain sight: Racism in international relations theory. In A. Anievas, N. Manchanda, & R. Shilliam (Eds.), Race and racism in international relations. Oxon: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • HM Government. (2013) Report from the prime minister’s task force on tackling radicalisation and extremism. Policy Paper. United Kingdom: Cabinet Office.

  • Holbrook, D., & Taylor, M. (2013). Introduction. In M. Taylor, D. Holbrook, & P. M. Currie (Eds.), Extreme right wing political violence and terrorism (pp. 1–15). London: Bloomsbury Academic.

    Google Scholar 

  • Holland, J. (2009). From September 11th, 2001 to 9–11: From void to crisis. International Political Sociology, 3, 275–292.

    Google Scholar 

  • Horgan, J., & Boyle, M. J. (2008). A case against ‘critical terrorism studies’. Critical Studies on Terrorism, 1(1), 51–64.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jackson, R. (2012). Unknown knowns: The subjugated knowledge of terrorism studies. Critical Studies on Terrorism, 5(1), 11–29. https://doi.org/10.1080/17539153.2012.659907.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jones, B. G. (ed.). (2006). Introduction: International relations, eurocentricsm, and imperialism. In: Decolonizing international relations (pp. 1–22). Rowman & Littlefield Publishers.

  • Joseph-Salisbury, R. (2019). Institutionalised whiteness, racial microaggressions and black bodies out of place in higher education. Whiteness and Education, 4(1), 1–17. https://doi.org/10.1080/23793406.2019.1620629.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kapoor, N. (2018). Deport, deprive, extradite: 21st century state extremism. London: Verso.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kaunert, C., & Léonard, S. (2019). Refugees, security and the European Union. Oxon: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Khan-Cullors, P., & Bandele, A. (2018). When they call you a terrorist: A black lives matter memoir. Great Britain: Canongate Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kibria, N., Watson, T. H., & Selod, S. (2018). Imagining the radicalized Muslim: Race, anti-Muslim discourse, and media narratives of the 2013 Boston Marathon Bombers. Sociology of Race and Ethnicity, 4(2), 192–205.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kilcullen, D. (2005). Countering global insurgency. The Journal of Strategic Studies, 28(4), 597–617.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kumar, D. (2012). Islamophobia and the politics of empire. Chicago: Haymarket Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kundnani, A. (2007). The end of tolerance: Racism in 21st-century Britain. London: Pluto Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kundnani, A. (2012). Blind spot? Security narratives and far-right violence in Europe. ICCT Research Paper edition: ICCT Research Paper.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kundnani, A. (2015). The Muslims are coming!. London: Verso.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kurz, J. J., & Berry, D. T. (2015). Normalizing racism: Vigilantism, border security and neo-racist assemblages. Security Journal, 28(2), 150–164. https://doi.org/10.1057/sj.2015.6.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lyons, M. N. (2018). Insurgent supremacists: The US Far right’s challenge to state and empire. Quebec: Kersplebedeb Publishing.

    Google Scholar 

  • May, T. (2011). Prevent strategy. Policy paper. London: Cabinet Office.

    Google Scholar 

  • McCulloch, J. (2016). Violence, policing, and war. In R. McGarry & S. Walklate (Eds.), The Palgrave handbook of criminology and war (pp. 249–267). London: Palgrave Macmillan.

    Google Scholar 

  • McCulloch, J., & Pickering, S. (2009). Pre-crime and counter-terrorism: Imagining future crime in the ‘war on terror. The British Journal of Criminology, 49(5), 628–645.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mohammad, U., Naveed, I., & Rudnick, D. L. (2019). Radical rejections of violence: Resisting anti-Muslim racism. Journal of Critical Thought and Praxis, 8(1), 46–66.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mondon, A., & Winter, A. (2017). Articulations of Islamophobia: From the extreme to the mainstream? Ethnic and Racial Studies, 40(13), 2151–2179.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nayak, M. V., & Malone, C. (2009). American orientalism and American exceptionalism: A critical rethinking of US hegemony. International Studies Review, 11(2), 253–276.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pain, R. (2010). The new geopolitics of fear. Geography Compass, 4(3), 226–240.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pain, R. (2014). Everyday terrorism. Progress in Human Geography, 38(4), 531–550.

    Google Scholar 

  • Parashar, S. (2018). Terrorism and the postcolonial “state”. In O. U. Rutazibwa & R. Shilliam (Eds.), The routledge handbook of postcolonial politics (pp. 110–125). Oxon: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pascale, C.-M. (2010). Epistemology and the politics of knowledge. The Sociological Review, 58(2_suppl), 154–165.

    Google Scholar 

  • Paul, K. (1997). Whitewashing Britain: Race and citizenship in the postwar era. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Perry, B., & Scrivens, R. (2018). A climate for hate? An exploration of the right-wing extremist landscape in Canada. Critical Criminology, 26, 169–187.

    Google Scholar 

  • Poynting, S., Noble, G., Tabar, P., & Collins, J. (2004). Bin Laden in the suburbs criminalising the Arab other., Sydney Institute of Criminology Series Sydney: The Sydney Institute of Criminology.

    Google Scholar 

  • Puar, J. (2007). Terrorist assemblages: Homonationalism in queer times. Durham: Duke University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Puar, J. K., & Rai, A. S. (2002). Monster, terrorist, fag: The war on terrorism and the production of Docile Patriots. Social Text, 20(3), 117–148.

    Google Scholar 

  • Quijano, A. (2007). Coloniality and modernity/rationality. Cultural Studies, 21(2), 168–178.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ragazzi, F. (2017). Countering terrorism and radicalisation: Securitising social policy? Critical Social Policy, 37(2), 163–179.

    Google Scholar 

  • Razack, S. (2004). Dark threats & white knights: The Somalia affair peacekeeping and the new imperialism. Canada: University of Toronto Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Razack, S. (2008). Casting out, the eviction of Muslims from western law and politics. Canada: University of Toronto Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Razack, S. (2017). The impact of systemic racism on Canada’s pre-bombing threat assessment and post-bombing response to the Air India bombings [2017]. In C. Chakraborty, A. Dean, & A. Failler (Eds.), Remembering Air India: The art of public mourning (pp. 85–117). Edmonton: The University of Alberta Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Richards, A. (2015). Conceptualizing terrorism. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sageman, M. (2017). Misunderstanding terrorism. Pennsylvania: University of Pennsylvania Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Said, E. (1979). Orientalism., Vintage books New York: Random House.

    Google Scholar 

  • Said, E. (1987). The essential terrorist. Arab Studies Quarterly, 9(2), 195–203.

    Google Scholar 

  • Said, E. (2001). ‘The clash of ignorance’. The Nation. https://www.thenation.com/article/clash-ignorance/.

  • Said, E. (2004). Orientalism once more. Development and Change, 35(5), 869–879.

    Google Scholar 

  • Salaita, S. (2006). Beyond orientalism and Islamophobia: 9/11, anti-Arab racism, and the mythos of national pride. CR: The New Centennial Review, 6(2), 245–266.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sayyid, S., & Vakil, A. (2017). Reports of Islamophobia: 1997 and 2017. Academic. Critical Muslim Studies (blog). 29 November 2017. https://www.criticalmuslimstudies.co.uk/reports_of_islamophobia_1997_and_2017/.

  • Scranton, P. (2004). Speaking truth to power. In Marie Smyth & Emma Williamson (Eds.), Researchers and their ‘subjects’: Ethics, power, knowledge, and consent (pp. 175–194). Bristol: Policy Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shilliam, R. (2016). Race in world politics. In P. Baylis, S. Smith, & J. Baylis (Eds.), The globalization of world politics: An introduction to international relations (7th ed., pp. 285–301). Oxford: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shilliam, R. (2018). Race and the undeserving poor: From abolition to Brexit. Newcastle upon Tyne: Agenda Publishing.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shilliam, R., & Rutazibwa, O. U. (eds). (2018). Postcolonial politics : An introduction. In Routledge handbook of postcolonial politics (pp. 1–16). Oxon: Routledge.

  • Siddique, H., & Grierson, J. (2020). Home office proposes offence of possessing terrorist propaganda. News Media. The Guardian. 14 January 2020. https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2020/jan/14/home-office-proposes-offence-of-possessing-terrorist-propaganda?fbclid=IwAR2YoE-iAMejN96UbVrXHSFI74GKAjewv25Nr-Q7Nt9_RSoBoIPHLBNWpRs.

  • Smyth, M. B. (2007). A critical research agenda for the study of political terror. European Political Science, 6(3), 260–267.

    Google Scholar 

  • Somani, A. (2018). South Asian Canadian histories of exclusion. In T. D. Gupta, C. E. James, C. Andersen, G. Galabuzi, & R. C. A. Maaka (Eds.), Race and racialization (2nd ed., pp. 280–302). Toronto: Canadian Scholars.

    Google Scholar 

  • Spalek, B. (2012). Policing within counter-terrorism. In B. Spalek (Ed.), Counter-terrorism: Community-based approaches to preventing terror crime (pp. 50–73). London: Palgrave Macmillan.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stampnitzky, L. (2013). Disciplining terror: How experts invented terrorism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stoler, A. L. (2011). Colonial aphasia: Race and disabled histories in France. Public Culture, 23(1), 121–156.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thobani, S. (2003). War and the politics of truth-making in Canada. Qualitive Studies in Education, 16(3), 399–414.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thobani, S. (2007). White wars: Western feminisms and the ‘war on terror’. Feminist Theory, 8(2), 169–185.

    Google Scholar 

  • Updegrove, A. H., Cooper, M. N., Orrick, E. A., & Piquero, A. R. (2018). Red states and black lives: Applying the racial threat hypothesis to the black lives matter movement. Justice Quarterly. https://doi.org/10.1080/07418825.2018.1516797.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vallières, P. (1971). White Niggers of America. New York: Monthly Review Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Weaver, M., & Grierson, J. (2016). Black lives matter protest stops flights at London city airport. News Media. The Guardian. 6 September 2016. https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2016/sep/06/black-lives-matter-protesters-occupy-london-city-airport-runway.

  • Welch, S. D. (2019). After the protests are heard: Enacting civic engagement and social transformation. New York: NYU Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Welland, J. (2015). Liberal warriors and the violent colonial logics of “partnering and advising”. International Feminist Journal of Politics., 17(2), 289–307.

    Google Scholar 

  • Williams, P., & Childs, P. (1997). An introduction to post-colonial theory. London: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Amal Abu-Bakare.

Ethics declarations

Conflict of interest

On behalf of all authors, the corresponding author states that there is no conflict of interest.

Additional information

Publisher's Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Abu-Bakare, A. Counterterrorism and race. Int Polit Rev 8, 79–99 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1057/s41312-020-00074-x

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1057/s41312-020-00074-x

Keywords

Navigation