Abstract
The Drosophila trachea, as the functional equivalent of mammalian blood vessels, senses hypoxia and oxygenates the body. Here, we show that the adult intestinal tracheae are dynamic and respond to enteric infection, oxidative agents and tumours with increased terminal branching. Increased tracheation is necessary for efficient damage-induced intestinal stem cell (ISC)-mediated regeneration and is sufficient to drive ISC proliferation in undamaged intestines. Gut damage or tumours induce HIF-1Ξ± (Sima in Drosophila), which stimulates tracheole branching via the FGF (Branchless (Bnl))βFGFR (Breathless (Btl)) signalling cascade. BnlβBtl signalling is required in the intestinal epithelium and the trachea for efficient damage-induced tracheal remodelling and ISC proliferation. Chemical or Pseudomonas-generated reactive oxygen species directly affect the trachea and are necessary for branching and intestinal regeneration. Similarly, tracheole branching and the resulting increase in oxygenation are essential for intestinal tumour growth. We have identified a mechanism of trachealβintestinal tissue communication, whereby damage and tumours induce neo-tracheogenesis in Drosophila, a process reminiscent of cancer-induced neoangiogenesis in mammals.
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Source data are provided with this paper. All other data supporting the findings of this study are available from the corresponding authors upon reasonable request.
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Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank the BDSC, the VDRC, the Kyoto Stock Center and the TRiP for fly stocks; A. Bardin, S. Hou, J. Casanova, T. Kornberg, C. Potter, P. Wappner and A. Ignatiou for fly stocks; E. Snyder for use of the Nikon Ti microscope; and the DSHB for antibodies. This project was supported by FP7-PEOPLE-2011-CIG-303727, the Fondation SantΓ© and the Cyprus Research and Innovation Foundation EXCELLENCE/0918/0082 to C.P., and by ERC AdG 268515, DFG SFB873, the Huntsman Cancer Foundation and NIH GM124434 to B.A.E.
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V.T., M.M.R. and M.P. designed and performed experiments, and analysed data. I.C. and K.K. performed experiments and analysed data. H.M., V.B. and B.I. assisted with experiment execution. B.A.E. and C.P. conceived and supervised the project. C.P. compiled the data and wrote the manuscript with the help of M.M.R., V.T. and B.A.E.
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Extended data
Extended Data Fig. 1 Infection and oxidative damage increase esgβ>βGFPβ+βcells in the midgut and associate with increased TTC branching.
a, Adult midgut intestinal progenitors labelled with esgNP5130-Gal4β>βUAS-srcGFP were imaged in unchallenged conditions (4% sucrose) and upon oral P.a. infection (48hrs), and feeding with H2O2 (48hrs) and PQ (24hrs). DAPI (blue) in the upper panels stains all midgut nuclei. The bottom panels show the GFP-labeled progenitors separately. P.a. and PQ expanded the intestinal progenitors with a posterior midgut bias, whereas H2O2 exhibited an anterior midgut bias. b-c, Quantification of midgut mitosis (b, nβ=β10 each) and TTC branching (c, nβ=β7,6) in PQ-treated flies. d-e, Posterior midgut (R4) images of btl-Gal4β>βUAS-srcGFP flies in baseline conditions (sucrose) and upon PQ feeding. DAPI (blue) staining all the nuclei. Single channel images of the GFP are shown in dβ-eβ. f-g, Posterior midgut images of QF6β>βQUAS-mtdTomato flies in baseline conditions exhibit tracheal expression of the reporter. Midgut epithelial ECs with low expression of the reporter are visible is zoomed image (g). Single channel images of the Tomato are shown in fβ-gβ. Scale bars: 300βΞΌm in a, 75βΞΌm in d-g. Data are presented as mean values Β± SD. Statistical significance (t-tested, two-sided for b, and U-tested for c): ns, not significant, * 0.01β<βpββ€β0.05, ** 0.001β<βpββ€β0.01 and *** pββ€β0.001.
Extended Data Fig. 2 The FGFR/Btl is necessary and sufficient for midgut TTC branching and ISC mitosis.
a-b, Brightfield images of the tracheae of P.a. infected R5 regions of the midgut in trh-Gal4 control (a) and trh-Gal4β>βUAS-btlDN (b). c-d, Brightfield images of the tracheae of uninfected R5 regions of the midgut in trh-Gal4 control (c) and trh-Gal4β>βUAS-Ξ»btl (d). e-g, Quantification of TTCs (e, nβ=β10,11,10,9,10), TTC branching (f, nβ=β10,11,10,8,10), and midgut mitosis (g, nβ=β8,6,10,9,6) upon trh-Gal4-driven btl manipulation with or without P.a. infection. h-i, Brightfield images of the tracheae of P.a.-infected R5 regions of the midgut in dSRF-Gal4 control (h) and dSRF-Gal4β>βUAS-btlDN (i). j-k, Brightfield images of the tracheae of uninfected R5 regions of the midgut in dSRF-Gal4 control (j) and dSRF-Gal4β>βUAS-Ξ»btl (k). l-n, Quantification of TTCs (l, nβ=β10,10,8,8,11), TTC branching (m, nβ=β10,10,8,8,11), and midgut mitosis (n, nβ=β11,9,12,12,9) upon dSRF-Gal4-driven btl manipulation with or without P.a. infection. All scale bars: 75βΞΌm. Data are presented as mean values Β± SD. Statistical significance (t-tested, two-sided): ns, not significant, * 0.01β<βpββ€β0.05, ** 0.001β<βpββ€β0.01 and *** pββ€β0.001.
Extended Data Fig. 3 Infection and oxidative damage induce FGF/bnl in the midgut epithelium.
Adult midgut bnl-expressing cells labeled with the reporter bnl-Gal4β>βUAS-srcGFP were imaged in unchallenged conditions (4% sucrose) and upon oral P.a. infection (48hrs), feeding with H2O2 (48hrs) and PQ (24hrs). DAPI (blue) in the upper panels stained all midgut nuclei. The bottom panels show the GFP-labeled bnl expressing cells separately. P.a. and PQ induced the reporter throughout the midgut, whereas H2O2 exhibited an anterior midgut bias. Scale bar: 300βΞΌm.
Extended Data Fig. 4 Btl/Bnl signaling in the epithelial cells is necessary for efficient tracheal remodelling and mitosis in response to infection.
a-b, Quantification of TTC branching upon progenitor- (a) and EC-specific (b) silencing of bnl (bnlRNAi3) and btl (btlRNAi) (a, nβ=β10,8,5,10,7,7 and b, nβ=β10,7,9,10,9,8). c-d, Quantification of midgut mitosis upon progenitor- (c) and EC-specific (d) silencing of bnl (bnlRNAi3) (c, nβ=β6,8,12,12 and d, nβ=β9,9,11,13). e, Quantification of esgβ+βprogenitors as a percent of total number of cells in the posterior regions of the midgut upon progenitor-specific knockdown of btl (btlRNAi) and bnl (bnlRNAi3) (nβ=β12,15,15). f-g, Quantification of midgut mitosis upon progenitor- (f) and EC-specific (g) silencing of btl (btlRNAi) (f, nβ=β8,13,11,13 and g, nβ=β12,11,11,16). h, Quantification of esgβ+βprogenitor cells/total number of cells in the posterior midgut upon progenitor-specific knockdown of btl (btlDN, nβ=β9,9). Data are presented as mean values Β± SD. Statistical significance (t-tested, two-sided): ns, not significant, * 0.01β<βpββ€β0.05, ** 0.001β<βpββ€β0.01 and *** pββ€β0.001.
Extended Data Fig. 5 Infection and oxidative damage activate Hif-1Ξ±/Sima in the midgut epithelium and the visceral TTCs.
Hif-1Ξ±/Sima activation was monitored via the ldh-Gal4β>βUAS-nlsGFP reporter expression in the adult midgut epithelium and the intestinal trachea of the R5 region in unchallenged flies (sucrose) and upon P.a. and PQ treatment (a, c, e), and of the R2 region in unchallenged flies (sucrose) and upon H2O2 feeding (b, d). Epithelial sections (a-d) and trachea surface sections (aβ-dβ) of the same midguts were imaged. DAPI (blue) in a-d and aβ-dβ stains all the nuclei. aβ-dβ and aββ-dββ correspond to separated channels for reporter expression in the epithelium and the intestinal trachea, respectively. The ldh-Gal4β>βUAS-nlsGFP reporter was expressed in cells of the midgut epithelium and in the midgut TTCs in baseline conditions in the anterior (R2 in b, bβ) and posterior (R5 in a, aβ) midgut. P.a. (c, cβ), H2O2 (d, dβ) and PQ (e, eβ) induced the reporter in the epithelium and the trachea at varying degrees. All images were acquired at the same confocal settings as their respective controls. Scale bar: 75βΞΌm.
Extended Data Fig. 6 Hif-1a/Sima is necessary in the intestinal epithelium and the trachea for TTC branching.
a-b, Brightfield images of the midgut TTCs (R5 region) upon trachea-specific (via btl-Gal4) sima knockdown in the background of heterozygous simaKG in baseline conditions. c-d, Bright-field images of the midgut TTCs (R5 region) upon EC-specific (via Myo1A-Gal4) sima knockdown in the background of heterozygous simaKG in baseline conditions. e-f, Bright-field images of the midgut TTCs (R5 region) upon trachea-specific (via btl-Gal4) sima knockdown in the background of heterozygous simaKG in P.a.-infected conditions. g-h, Bright-field images of the midgut TTCs (R5 region) upon EC-specific (via Myo1A-Gal4) sima knockdown in the background of heterozygous simaKG in P.a.-infected conditions. The images correspond to examples of those quantified for Fig. 4e,i. Scale bar: 75βΞΌm.
Extended Data Fig. 7 Time-course analysis of NotchDN progenitor-derived midgut tumors.
a-d, The R4a region of control (reared for 4 days at 18βΒ°C) (a) and tumorous midguts (reared for 4, 7 and 10 days at 29βΒ°C) (b-d) of the esg-Gal4 UAS-eGFP tub-Gal80tsβ>βUAS-NotchDN genotype with concomitant expression of QF6β>βQUAS-mtdTomato (red) to label the trachea. DAPI (blue in a-d) is used to label all midgut nuclei and Prospero (aβ-dβ) labels the EEs. aβ-dβ, aβ-dβ and aββ-dββ correspond to the individual channels for eGFP, Prospero and Tomato-labeled trachea, respectively. Scale bars: 75βΞΌm. e-g, Quantification of TTC branching in the R4a of control (NotchDN uninduced) and NotchDN-expressing midguts (e, nβ=β4,8,4,6,4,7), in the NotchDN tumor-region vs. neighboring non-tumor area on the same image (f, nβ=β6,6,4,4,6,6), and midgut mitosis of control (NotchDN uninduced) and NotchDN-expressing midguts (g, nβ=β20 each) during a time-course analysis at 4, 7, and 10 days post-tumor induction. Scale bar: 75βΞΌm. Data are presented as mean values Β± SD. Statistical significance (t-tested, two-sided): ** 0.001β<βpββ€β0.01 and *** pββ€β0.001.
Extended Data Fig. 8 Time-course analysis of RasV12 progenitor-derived midgut tumors.
a-d, The R5 region of control esg-Gal4 UAS-eGFP tub-Gal80ts (reared for 1 day at 29βΒ°C) and esg-Gal4 UAS-eGFP tub-Gal80tsβ>βUAS-RasV12-tumor bearing midguts (reared for 1, 3 and 5 days at 29βΒ°C) with concomitant expression of QF6β>βQUAS-mtdTomato (red) to label the trachea. DAPI (blue in a-d) was used to label all midgut nuclei. aβ-dβ and aβ-dβ correspond to the individual channels for the eGFP and the Tomato-labeled trachea, respectively. Scale bar: 75βΞΌm.
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Supplementary Tables
Supplementary Table 1: Drosophila and Pseudomonas strains used in this study. Supplementary Table 2: reagents and antibodies used in this study. Supplementary Table 3: primer sequences used in this study.
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Tamamouna, V., Rahman, M.M., Petersson, M. et al. Remodelling of oxygen-transporting tracheoles drives intestinal regeneration and tumorigenesis in Drosophila. Nat Cell Biol 23, 497β510 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41556-021-00674-1
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41556-021-00674-1
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