Abstract
For more than four decades, my colleagues and I have examined how social contexts and individuals influence each other. To provide a perspective on this work, I describe some lessons we have learned: situational influence exemplifies both the power and fragility of social contexts; common aspects of settings underlie their power, for better and for worse; individuals' health and well-being is affected by powerful forces in eight domains; and intervention programs are powerful settings that encompass risks as well as rewards. I then note some unresolved questions, such as how to balance the risks and rewards of powerful environments, how to better understand the interplay between individuals and the social contexts they select and create, how to learn from the fact that many people overcome the power of traumatic social contexts, and how to apply our knowledge to balance the risks and rewards of individual and community contexts.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Asch, S. (1956). Studies of independence and conformity: A minority of one against a unanimous majority. Psychological Monographs, 70, (9, Whole no. 416).
Astin, A. W., & Panos, R. (1969). The educational and vocational development of college students. Washington, DC: American Council on Education.
Barrera, M. (2000). Social support research in community psychology. In J. Rappaport & E. Seidman (Eds.), Handbook of community psychology (pp. 215–245). New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum.
Bland, S. H., O'Leary, E. S., Farinaro, E., Jossa, F., & Trevisan, M. (1996). Long–term psychological effects of natural disasters. Psychosomatic Medicine, 58, 18–24.
Bloom, S. L. (1998). By the crowd they have been broken, by the crowd they shall be healed: The social transformation of trauma. In R. G. Tedeschi, C. L. Park, & L. G. Calhoun (Eds.), Posttraumatic growth: Positive change in the aftermath of crises (pp. 179–213). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Brennan, P., Schutte, K., & Moos, R. (1999). Reciprocal relations between stressors and drinking behavior: A three–wave panel study of older women and men. Addiction, 94, 737–749.
Bromet, E., & Moos, R. (1977). Environmental resources and the posttreatment functioning of alcoholic patients. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 18, 326–338.
Cherniss, C., & Deegan, G. (2000). The creation of alternative settings. In J. Rappaport & E. Seidman (Eds.), Handbook of community psychology (pp. 359–377). New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum.
Conrad, K. J., Matters, M. D., Hanrahan, P., & Luchins, D. J. (Eds.). (1999). Homelessness prevention in treatment of substance abuse and mental illness: Logic models and implementation of eight American projects. New York: Haworth.
DuBois, D. L., Holloway, B. E., Valentine, J. C., & Cooper, H. (2002). Effectiveness of mentoring programs for youth: A meta–analytic review. American Journal of Community Psychology, 30, 157–197.
Durlak, J. A., & Wells, A. M. (1997). Primary prevention mental health programs for children and adolescents: A meta–analytic review. American Journal of Community Psychology, 25, 115–152.
Durlak, J. A., & Wells, A. M. (1998). Evaluation of indicated preventive intervention (secondary prevention) mental health programs for children and adolescents. American Journal of Community Psychology, 26, 775–802.
Einstein, A. (1950). The meaning of relativity. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University.
Evans, G. W., Saegert, S., & Harris, R. (2001). Residential density and psychological health among children in low–income families. Environment and Behavior, 33, 165–180.
Evans, G. W., Saltzman, H., & Cooperman, J. L. (2001). Housing quality and children's socioemotional health. Environment and Behavior, 33, 389–399.
Felner, R. D., Felner, T. Y., & Silverman, M. M. (2000). Prevention in mental health and social intervention. In J. Rappaport & E. Seidman (Eds.), Handbook of community psychology (pp. 9–42). New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum.
Fetterman, D. M. (2002). Empowerment evaluation: Building communities of practice and a culture of learning. American Journal of Community Psychology, 30, 89–102.
Fishman, D. B. (1999). The case for pragmatic psychology. New York: New York University.
Fondacaro, M. (2000). Toward an ecological jurisprudence rooted in concepts of justice and empirical research. University of Missouri–Kansas City Law Review, 69, 179–196.
Friis, S., Karterud, S., Kleppe, H., Lorentzen, S., Lystrup, S., & Vaglum, P. (1982). Reconsidering some limiting factors of therapeutic communities: A summary of six Norwegian studies. In M. Pines & L. Rafaelson (Eds.), The individual and the group: Boundaries and interrelations: Vol. I. Theory (pp. 573–581). New York: Plenum.
Grossman, J. B., & Rhodes, J. E. (2002). The test of time: Predictors and effects of duration in youth mentoring relationships. American Journal of Community Psychology, 30, 199–219.
Haney, C. (2002). Making law modern: Toward a contextual model of justice. Psychology, Public Policy, and Law, 8, 3–63.
Haney, C., Banks, C., & Zimbardo, P. (1973). Interpersonal dynamics in a simulated prison. International Journal of Criminology and Penology, 1, 69–97.
Hartshorne, H., & May, M. (1928). Studies in deceit. New York: Macmillan.
Holahan, C. J., Moos, R. H., & Bonin, L. (1997). Social support, coping, and psychological adjustment: A resource model. In G. R. Pierce, B. Lakey, & I. G. Sarason (Eds.), Sourcebook of theory and research on social support and personality (pp. 169–186). New York: Plenum.
Humphreys, K., Mankowski, E., Moos, R., & Finney, J. (1999). Enhanced friendship networks and active coping mediate the effect of self–help groups on substance abuse. Annals of Behavioral Medicine, 21, 54–60.
Humphreys, K., Moos, R. H., & Finney, J. W. (1996). Life domains, Alcoholics Anonymous, and role incumbency in the 3–year course of problem drinking. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 184, 475–481.
House, J. S. (2002). Understanding social factors and inequalities in health: 20th century progress and 21st century prospects. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 43, 125–142.
Igra, A., & Moos, R. (1979). Alcohol use among college students: Some competing hypotheses. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 8, 393–405.
Jacobs, M. K., & Goodman, G. (1989). Psychology and self–help groups: Predictions on a partnership. American Psychologist, 44, 536–545.
Kelly, G. A. (1955). The psychology of personal constructs. New York: Norton.
Kingree, J. B., & Thompson, M. (2000). Mutual help groups, perceived status benefits, and well–being: A test with adult children of alcoholics and personal substance abuse problems. American Journal of Community Psychology, 28, 325–342.
Klebanov, P. K., Brooks–Gunn, J., & Duncan, G. J. (1994). Does neighborhood and family poverty affect mothers' parenting, mental health, and social support? Journal of Marriage and the Family, 56, 441–455.
Kurosawa, A. (Director). (1950). Rashomon [motion picture].
Lewin, K. (1951). Field theory in social science: Selected theoretical papers New York: Harper & Row.
Levy, L. (2000). Self–help groups. In J. Rappaport & E. Seidman (Eds.), Handbook of community psychology (pp. 591–613). New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum.
Link, B. G., Struening, E. L., Rahav, M., Phelan, J., & Nuttbrock, L. (1997). On stigma and its consequences: Evidence from a longitudinal study of men with dual diagnoses of mental illness and substance abuse. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 38, 177–190.
Lundberg, A. (Ed.). (1998). The environment and mental health: A guide for clinicians. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Maton, K. I. (2000). Making a difference: The social ecology of social transformation. American Journal of Community Psychology, 28, 25–57.
McMillen, J. C., Smith, E. M., & Fisher, R. H. (1997). Perceived benefit and mental health after three types of disaster. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 65, 733–739.
Milgram, S. (1974). Obedience to authority. New York: Harper & Row.
Mischel, W. (1968). Personality and assessment. New York: Wiley.
Mohr, D. C. (1995). Negative outcome in psychotherapy: A critical review. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 2, 1–27.
Moos, R. (1968). A situational analysis of a therapeutic community milieu. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 73, 49–61.
Moos, R. (1991). Life stressors, social resources, and the treatment of depression. In J. Becker & A. Kleinman (Eds.), Psychosocial aspects of depression (pp. 187–214). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Moos, R. (1994). The Social Climate Scales: A user's guide (2nd ed.). Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press.
Moos, R. (1995). Development and application of new measures of life stressors, social resources, and coping responses. European Journal of Psychological Assessment, 11, 1–13.
Moos, R. (1997). Evaluating treatment environments: The quality of psychiatric and substance abuse programs. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction.
Moos, R. (2000). The Life Stressors and Social Resources Inventory and the Coping Responses Inventory: An annotated bibliography: Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources.
Moos, R. (2002). The mystery of human context and coping: An unraveling of clues. American Journal of Community Psychology, 30, 67–88.
Moos, R., Brennan, P., & Schutte, K. (1998). Life context factors, treatment, and late–life drinking behavior. In E. Gomberg, A. M. Hegedus, & R. A. Zucker (Eds.), Alcohol problems and aging (pp. 261–279). Washington, DC: National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism.
Moos, R., & Brownstein, R. (1977). Environment and utopia: A synthesis. New York: Plenum.
Moos, R., Cronkite, R., & Moos, B. (1998a). Family and social resources and the 10–year course of treated depression. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 107, 450–460.
Moos, R., Cronkite, R., & Moos, R. (1998b). The long–term interplay between family and extrafamily resources and depression. Journal of Family Psychology, 12, 326–343.
Moos, R., Finney, J., & Cronkite, R. (1990). Alcoholism treatment: Context, process, and outcome. New York: Oxford.
Moos, R., Finney, J. W., & Maude–Griffin, P. (1993). The social climate of self–help and mutual support groups: Assessing group implementation, process, and outcome. In B. S. McCrady & W. R. Miller (Eds.), Research on Alcoholics Anonymous: Opportunities and alternatives (pp. 251–274). Piscataway, NJ: Rutgers University, Center of Studies on Alcohol.
Moos, R., & NathanLemke, S. (1994). Group residences for older adults: Physical features, policies, and social climate. New York: Oxford.
Moos, R., & MacIntosh, S. (1970). Multivariate study of the patient–therapist system: A replication and extension. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 35, 298–307.
Moos, R., & Moos, B. (1994a). Life Stressors and Social Resources Inventory: Adult form manual. Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources.
Moos, R., & Moos, B. (1994b). Life Stressors and Social Resources Inventory: Youth form manual. Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources.
Moos, R., Moos, B., & Finney, J. W. (2001). Predictors of deterioration among patients with substance use disorders. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 57, 1403–1419.
Moos, R., Schaefer, J., Andrassy, J., & Moos, B. (2001). Outpatient mental health care, self–help groups, and patients' 1–year treatment outcomes. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 57, 1–15.
Morgenstern, J., Labouvie, E., McCrady, B. S., Kahler, C. W., & Frey, R. M. (1997). Affiliation with Alcoholics Anonymous after treatment: A study of its therapeutic effects and mechanisms of action. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 65, 768–777.
Nathan, P. E., & Gorman, J. M. (2002). A guide to treatments that work. New York: Oxford University Press.
Nelson, G., Ochocka, J., Griffin, K., & Lord, J. (1998). “Nothing about me, without me”: Action research with self–help/mutual aid organizations for psychiatric consumer/survivors. American Journal of Community Psychology, 26, 881–912.
Ouimette, P. C., Moos, R., & Finney, J. (1998). Influence of outpatient treatment and 12–step group involvement on one–year substance abuse treatment outcomes. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 59, 513–522.
Parkes, K. (1986). Coping in stressful episodes: The role of individual differences, environmental factors, and situational characteristics. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51, 1277–1292.
Raush, H., Dittman, A., & Taylor, T. (1959). Person, setting, and change in social interaction. Human Relations, 12, 361–378.
Repetti, R. L. (1987). Individual and common components of the social environment at work and psychological well–being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52, 710–720.
Ritsher, J. B., Moos, R. H., & Finney, J. (2002). The influence of treatment orientation and continuing care on substance abuse patients' two–year remission. Psychiatric Services, 53, 595–601.
Ritsher, J. B., McKellar, J. D., Finney, J. W., Otilingam, P. G., & Moos, R. H. (in press). Psychiatric comorbidity, continuing care, and self–help as predictors of substance abuse remission 5 years after intensive treatment. Journal of Studies on Alcohol.
Sandler, I. (2001). Quality and ecology of adversity as common mechanisms of risk and resilience. American Journal of Community Psychology, 29, 19–55.
Sarason, B. (1972). The creation of settings and the future societies. San Francisco: Jossey–Bass.
Sarason, B. (1974). The psychological sense of community: Prospects for a community psychology. San Francisco: Jossey–Bass.
Sarason, B. (1997). The public schools: America's Achilles heel. American Journal of Community Psychology, 25, 771–785.
Shea, M. T., Leon, A. C., Mueller, T. I., Solomon, D. A., Warshaw, M. G., & Keller, M. B. (1996). Does major depression result in lasting personality change? American Journal of Psychiatry, 153, 1404–1410.
Shinn, M. (1990). Mixing and matching: Levels of conceptualization, measurement, and statistical analysis in community research. In P. Tolan, C. Keys, F. Chertok, & L. Jason (Eds.), Researching community psychology: Issues of theory and methods (pp. 111–126). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Simons, R., Johnson, C., Beaman, J., Conger, R., & Whitbeck, L. (1996). Parents and peer groups as mediators of the effect of community structure on adolescent problem behavior. American Journal of Community Psychology, 24, 145–172.
Solomon, M., Pistrang, N., & Barker, C. (2001). The benefits of mutual support groups for parents of children with disabilities. American Journal of Community Psychology, 29, 113–132.
Steiner, H., Marx, L., & Walton, C. (1991). The ward atmosphere of a child psychosomatic unit: A ten–year follow–up. General Hospital Psychiatry, 13, 1–7.
Tedeschi, R., Park, C., & Calhoun, L. (Eds.). Posttraumatic growth: Positive changes in the aftermath of crisis. (pp. 99–125). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Thornton, A. A. (2002). Perceiving benefits in the cancer experience. Journal of Clinical Psychology in Medical Settings, 9, 153–165.
Timko, C. (1995). Policies and services in residential substance abuse programs: Comparisons with psychiatric programs. Journal of Substance Abuse, 7, 43–59.
Timko, C. (1996). Physical characteristics of residential psychiatric and substance abuse programs: Organizational determinants and patient outcomes. American Journal of Community Psychology, 24, 173–192.
Timko, C., Kaplowitz, M., & Moos, R. (2000). Children's health and child–parent relationships as predictors of problem drinking mothers' and fathers' long–term adaptation. Journal of Substance Abuse, 11, 103–121.
Timko, C., Moos, R., Finney, J. W., & Lesar, M. D. (2000). Long–term outcomes of alcohol use disorders: Comparing untreated individuals with those in Alcoholics Anonymous and formal treatment. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 61, 529–540.
Trickett, E. J. (1991). Living an idea: Empowerment and the evolution of an inner city alternative high school. Cambridge, MA: Brookline.
Trickett, E. J. (1996). A future for community psychology: The contexts of diversity and the diversity of contexts. American Journal of Community Psychology, 24, 209–229.
Trickett, E. J., Watts, R. J., & Birman, D. (1994). Human diversity: Perspectives on people in context. San Francisco: Jossey–Bass.
Turner, R. J., Wheaton, B., & Lloyd, D. A., (1995). The epidemiology of social stress. American Sociological Review, 60, 104–125.
Wachs, T. D., & Kohnstamm, G. A. (2001). Temperament in context. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Wicker, A. W. (1989). Substantive theorizing. American Journal of Community Psychology, 17, 531–547.
Wicker, A. W. (1992). Making sense of environments. In W. B. Walsh, K. H. Craik, & R. H. Price (Eds.), Person–environment psychology: Models and perspectives (pp. 157–192). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Moos, R.H. Social Contexts: Transcending Their Power and Their Fragility. Am J Community Psychol 31, 1–13 (2003). https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1023041101850
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1023041101850