Skip to main content
Log in

A Short Measure of Transformational Leadership

  • Published:
Journal of Business and Psychology Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

This study reports the development of a short measure of transformational leadership: the Global Transformational Leadership scale (GTL). The study sample was 1,440 subordinates who assessed the leader behaviour of 695 branch managers in a large Australian financial organisation. Exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis showed that the GTL measured a single construct of leadership and had satisfactory reliability. Evidence for the convergent and discriminant validity is presented. We conclude that the GTL has a number of potential uses as an assessment and selection tool and in leadership research.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Similar content being viewed by others

REFERENCES

  • Allen, M. J., & Yen, W. M. (1979). Introduction to measurement theory. Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole Publishing.

    Google Scholar 

  • Atwater, L., Penn, R., & Rucker, L. (1991). Personal qualities of charismatic leaders. Leadership and Organization Development Journal, 12, 7-10.

    Google Scholar 

  • Atwater, L., Roush, P., & Fischthal, A. (1995). The influence of upward feedback on self-and follower ratings of leadership. Personnel Psychology, 48, 35-59.

    Google Scholar 

  • Avolio, B., Bass, B., & Jung, D. I. (1995). MLQ Multifactor leadership questionnaire: Technical report. Palo Alto, CA: Mind garden.

    Google Scholar 

  • Avolio, B., & Howell, J. M. (1992). The impact of leadership behavior and leader-follower personality match on satisfaction and unit performance. In K. E. Clark, M. B. Clark, & D. P. Campbell (Eds.), Impact of leadership (pp. 225-236). Greensboro, NC: Center for Creative Leadership.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bagozzi, R. P., & Heatherton, T. F. (1994). A general approach to representing multifaceted personality constructs: Application to state self-esteem. Structural Equation Modelling, 1, 35-67.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bass, B. (1985). Leadership and performance beyond expectations. New York: Free Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bass, B. (1990). From transactional to transformational leadership: Learning to share the vision. Organizational Dynamics, 18, 19-31.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bass, B. (1992). Assessing the charismatic leader. In M. Syrett & C. Hogg, (Eds.), Frontiers of leadership (pp. 414-418). Blackwell: Oxford, U.K.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bennis, W., & Nanus, B. (1985). Leaders: The strategies for taking charge. New York: Harper & Row.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bernardin, H., Dahmus, S. A., & Redmon, G. (1993). Attitudes of first-line supervisors toward subordinate appraisals. Human Resource Management, 32, 315-324.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bollen, K., & Long, J. S. (1992). Tests for structural equation models. Sociological Methods and Research, 21, 123-131.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brown, M. W., & Cudeck, R. (1993). Alternate ways of assessing model fit. In K. A. Bollen & J. S. Long (Eds.), Testing structural equation models. Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bryman, A. (1992). Charisma and leadership in organisations. London: Sage Publications.

    Google Scholar 

  • Carless, S. A. (1995). Transformational leadership and Australian bank managers. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Melbourne, Australia.

  • Cohen, R. J., Swerdlik, M. E., & Smith, D. K. (1992). Psychological testing and assessment: An introduction to tests and measurement (2nd ed.). Mountain View, CA: Mayfield Publishing Company.

    Google Scholar 

  • Conger, J., & Kanungo, R. (1994). Charismatic leadership in organizations: Perceived behavioural attributes and their measurement. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 15, 439-452.

    Google Scholar 

  • Conger, J., & Kanungo, R. (1988a). Behavioural dimensions of charismatic leadership. In J. Conger, R. Kanungo, & Associates. Charismatic leadership: The elusive factor in organisational effectiveness. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

    Google Scholar 

  • Conger, J., & Kanungo, R. (1988b). The empowerment process: Integrating theory and practice. Academy of Management Review, 13, 471-482.

    Google Scholar 

  • Coulson-Thomas, C., & Coe, T. (1991). The flat organization: Philosophy and practice. Corby: BIM.

    Google Scholar 

  • Crocker, L., & Algina, J. (1986). Introduction to classical and modern test theory. New York: Holt Rinehart & Winston.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cudeck, R. (1989). Analysis of correlation matrices using covariance structure models. Psychological Bulletin, 105, 317-327.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cuttance, P. (1987). Issues and problems in the application of structural equation models. In P. Cuttance, & R. Ecob (Eds.), Structural modelling by example: Applications in educational, sociological, and behavioral research (pp. 241-279). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cuttance, P., & Ecob, P. (1987). Introduction. In P. Cuttance, & R. Ecob (Eds.), Structural modelling by example: Applications in educational, sociological, and behavioral research (pp. 1-8). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fornell, C., & Larcker, D. F. (1981). Evaluating structural equation models with unobservable variables and measurement error. Journal of Marketing Research, 18, 39-50.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gerbing, D., & Anderson, J. (1992). Monte Carlo evaluations of goodness of fit indices for structural equation models. Sociological Methods and Research, 21, 132-160.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gerbing, D., & Hamilton, J. G. (1996). Viability of exploratory factor analysis as a precursor to confirmatory factor analysis. Structural Equation Modelling, 3, 62-72.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gome, A. (1994, 16 May). Breaking down the macho culture. Business Review Weekly, 42-45.

  • Griffin, D., & Bartholomew, K. (1994). Models of the self and other: Fundamental dimensions underlying measures of adult attachment. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 67, 430-445.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hamel, G., & Prahalad, C. K. (1994). Competing for the future. Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hater, J., & Bass, B. (1988). Superiors' evaluations and subordinates' perceptions of transformational and transactional leadership. Journal of Applied Psychology, 73, 695-702.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hegarty, W. H. (1974). Using subordinate ratings to elicit behavioural change in supervisors. Journal of Applied Psychology, 59, 764-766.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hemphill, J. K., & Coons, A. E. (1957). Development of the leader behavior description questionnaire. In R. M. Stogdill & A. E. Coons (Eds.), Leader behavior: Its description and measurement. Columbus: Ohio State University Bur. Business Res. Monograph No 88.

    Google Scholar 

  • Howell, J. M., & Avolio, B. (1993). Transformational leadership, transactional leadership, locus of control, and support for innovation: Key predictors of consolidated-business-unit performance. Journal of Applied Psychology, 78, 891-902.

    Google Scholar 

  • Howell, J. M., & Higgins, C. A. (1990). Champions of change: Identifying, understanding, and supporting champions of technological innovations. Organizational Dynamics, Summer, 40-55.

  • Industry Task Force on Leadership and Management Skills. Enterprising Nation Vol 1 and 2. Canberra: Australian Government Publishing Services.

  • Joreskog, K., & Sorbom, D. (1993). LISREL 8: User's reference guide. Chicago, IL: Scientific Software International Co.

    Google Scholar 

  • Judd, C., Jessor, R., & Donovan, J. (1986). Structural equation models and personality research. Journal of Personality, 54, 149-198.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kouzes, J., & Posner, B. (1987). The leadership challenge: How to get extraordinary things done in organizations. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kouzes, J., & Posner, B. (1990). Leadership Practices Inventory (LPI): A self-assessment and analysis. San Diego Pfeiffer & Co.

  • Larson, C. E., & LaFasto, F. M. (1989). Team-work: What must go right/what can go wrong. Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications.

    Google Scholar 

  • Loehlin, J. C. (1992). Latent variables models: An introduction to factor, path, and structural analysis (2nd ed.). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • McDonald, R. P., & Marsh, H. W. (1990). Choosing a multivariate model: Noncentrality and goodness of fit. Psychological Bulletin, 107, 247-255.

    Google Scholar 

  • Messick, S. (1989). Validity. In R. L. Linn (Ed.), Educational measurement, (3rd ed., pp. 13-103). New York: American Council on Education and Mcmillan Publishing Co.

    Google Scholar 

  • Murphy, K. R., & Davidshofer, C. O. (1994). Psychological testing: Principles and applications (3rd ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nadler, D., & Tushman, M. (1990). Beyond the charismatic leader: Leadership and organisational change. California Management Review, 32, 77-97.

    Google Scholar 

  • Podsakoff, P., MacKenzie, S., Moorman, S., & Fetter, R. (1990). Transformational leader behaviors and their effects on followers' trust in leader, satisfaction, and organizational citizenship behaviors. Leadership Quarterly, 1, 107-142.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ragins, B. R. (1989). Power and gender congruency effects in evaluations of male and female managers. Journal of Management, 15, 65-76.

    Google Scholar 

  • Riechmann, D. (1992). High involvement, high performance teams in higher education: The impact of leadership. In K. E. Clark, M. B. Clark, & D. P. Campbell (Eds.), Impact of leadership (pp. 257-268). Greensboro, NC: Center for Creative Leadership.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rubio, D. M., & Gillespie, D. F. (1995). Problems with error in structural equation models. Structural Equation Modelling, 2, 367-378.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sashkin, M. (1988). Visionary leadership. In J. Conger, R. Kanungo & Associates. Charismatic leadership: The elusive factor in organizational effectiveness. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sashkin, M. (1990). The visionary leader trainer guide: Leader Behavior Questionnaire (3rd ed.). Pennsylvania: Organisation Development and Design.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schaubroeck, J., & Kuehn, K. (1992). Research design in industrial and organisational psychology. In C. Cooper & I. T. Robertson (Eds.), International Review of Industrial and Organisational Psychology, Volume 7 (pp. 99-121). Chichester, UK: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Seltzer, J., & Bass, B. (1990). Transformational leadership: Beyond initiation and consideration. Journal of Management, 16, 693-703.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shamir, B., House, R. J., & Arthur, M. B. (1993). The motivational effects of charismatic leadership: A self-concept based theory. Organization Science, 4, 577-594.

    Google Scholar 

  • Smither, J. W., London, M., Vasilopoulous, Reilly, R. R., Millsap, R. E., & Salvemini, N. (1995). An examination of the effects of an upward feedback program over time. Personnel Psychology, 48, 1-34.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stevens, J. J. (1995). Confirmatory factor analysis of the Iowa tests of basic skills. Structural Equation Modelling, 2, 214-231.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tichy, N. M., & Devanna, M. A. (1986). Transformational leadership. New York: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tjosvold, D., Andrews, I. R., & Struthers, J. (1991). Power and interdependence on work groups: Views of managers and employees. Group & Organization Studies, 16, 285-299.

    Google Scholar 

  • Walderman, D., Bass, B., & Yammarino, F. (1990). Adding to contingent-reward behavior: The augmenting effect of charismatic leadership. Group and Organizational Studies, 15, 381-394.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wawn, T., Green, J., and others, Barraclough & Co. (1995). Experienced insights: Opinions of Australian managers, ideals, strengths & weaknesses. In Industry Task Force on Leadership and Management Skills. Enterprising Nation Vol. 1 (pp. 521-586). Canberra: Australian Government Publishing Services.

    Google Scholar 

  • Yammarino, F. J., & Bass, B. (1990). Long-term forecasting of transformational leadership and its effects among naval officers: Some preliminary findings. In K. E. Clark, & M. B. Clark, (Eds.), Measures of leadership (pp. 171-184). West Orange, NJ: Leadership Library of America.

    Google Scholar 

  • Yukl, G. (1994). Leadership in organisations (3rd ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Carless, S.A., Wearing, A.J. & Mann, L. A Short Measure of Transformational Leadership. Journal of Business and Psychology 14, 389–405 (2000). https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1022991115523

Download citation

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1022991115523

Keywords

Navigation