Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Prediction of Recidivism in Exhibitionists: Psychological, Phallometric, and Offense Factors

  • Published:
Sexual Abuse: A Journal of Research and Treatment

Abstract

Exhibitionists have traditionally been regarded as nuisance offenders. However, empirical studies show that some offenders can be highly recidivistic and can escalate to incidents of Hands-on sexual assault. The objective of this study was to investigate predictors of recidivism in exhibitionists and clarify the differences between Hands-on and Hands-off sexual recidivists. Two hundred and twenty-one exhibitionists were assessed at a university teaching hospital between 1983 and 1996. Archival data came from medical files and police files. The Psychopathy Checklist – Revised (PCL-R) was assessed retrospectively. Results indicated that over a mean follow-up period of 6.84 years, 11.7, 16.8, and 32.7% of exhibitionists were charged with or convicted of sexual, violent, or criminal offenses, respectively. Sexual reoffending recidivists were less educated, and had more prior sexual and criminal offenses. Violent, recidivists were also less educated, had lower Derogatis Sexual Functioning Inventory (DSFI) scores, higher PCL-R Totals, and more prior sexual, violent, and criminal offenses. Criminal recidivists were younger, less educated, had lower DSFI scores, higher PCL-R scores, higher Pedophile Indices, and more prior sexual, violent, and criminal offenses. Hands-on sexual recidivists demonstrated higher PCL-R ratings, higher Pedophile and Rape indices, and more prior sexual, violent, and criminal offenses than did Hands-offcounterparts.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

REFERENCES

  • Abel, G. G., Becker, J. V., Cunningham-Rathner, J., Mittelman, M., & Rouleau, J. L. (1988). Multiple paraphilic diagnoses among sex offenders. Bulletin of the Academy of Psychiatry and the Law, 16, 153-168.

    Google Scholar 

  • Abel, G. G., Blanchard, E. B., & Barlow, D. H. (1981). Measurement of sexual arousal in several paraphilias: The effects of stimulus modality, instructional set and stimulus content on the objective. Behavioural Research and Therapy, 19, 25-33.

    Google Scholar 

  • Abel, G. G., Mittleman, M., & Becker, J. V. (1985). Sexual offenders: Results of assessment and recommendations for treatment. In M. H. Ben-Aron, S. J. Hucker, & C. D. Webster (Eds.), Clinical criminology: Current concepts (pp. 191-205). Toronto, ON: M & M Graphics.

    Google Scholar 

  • Abel, G. G., & Osborne, C. (1992). Stopping sexual violence. Psychiatric Annals, 22, 301-306.

    Google Scholar 

  • Allnutt, S. H., Bradford, J. M. W., Greenberg, D. M., & Curry, S. (1996). Co-morbidity of alcoholism and the paraphilias. Journal of Forensic Sciences, 41, 234-239.

    Google Scholar 

  • Badgely, R., Allard, H., McCormick, N., Proudfoot, P., Fortin, D., Ogilvie, D., et al. (1984). Sexual offenses against children (Vol. 1). Ottawa, ON: Canadian Government Publishing Centre.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bluglass, R. (1979). Indecent exposure in the West Midlands. Paper presented at the Sex Offenders in the Criminal Justice System, Cambridge.

  • Brown, S. L., & Forth, A. E. (1997). Psychopathy and sexual assault: Static risk factors, emotional precursors, and rapist subtypes. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 65, 848-857.

    Google Scholar 

  • Buss, A. H., & Durkee, A. (1957). An inventory for assessing different kinds of hostility. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 21, 343-349.

    Google Scholar 

  • Card, R. D., & Olse, S. E. (1996). Visual plethysmograph stimuli involving children: Rethinking some quasi-logical issues. Sexual Abuse: A Journal of Research and Treatment, 8(4), 268-272.

    Google Scholar 

  • Derogatis, L. R. (1975). Derogatis Sexual Functioning Inventory. Baltimore: Clinical Psychometrics Research.

    Google Scholar 

  • Derogatis, L. R. (1978). Derogatis Sexual Functioning Inventory. Baltimore: Clinical Psychometrics Research.

    Google Scholar 

  • Derogatis, L. R. (1980). Psychological assessment of psychosexual functioning. Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 3, 113-131.

    Google Scholar 

  • Firestone, P., Bradford, J. M., Greenberg, D. M., McCoy, M., Larose, M. R., & Curry, S. (1999). Prediction of recidivism in incest offenders. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 14(5), 511-531.

    Google Scholar 

  • Firestone, P., Bradford, J. M., McCoy, M., Greenberg, D. M., Curry, S., & Larose, M. (2000). Prediction of recidivism in extrafamilial child molesters based on court-related assessments. Sexual Abuse: A Journal of Research and Treatment, 12(3), 203-221.

    Google Scholar 

  • Firestone, P., Bradford, J. M., McCoy, M., Greenberg, D. M., Larose, M. R., & Curry, S. (1998). Recidivism factors in convicted rapists. Journal of the American Academy of Psychiatry and Law, 26, 185-200.

    Google Scholar 

  • Freund, K. (1989). Courtship disorder. In W. L. Marshall & D. R. Laws (Eds.), Handbook of sexual assault: Issues, theories and treatment of the offender (pp. 195-207). New York: Plenum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Freund, K., & Blanchard, R. (1986). The concept of courtship disorder. Journal of Sex and Marital Therapy, 12(2), 79-92.

    Google Scholar 

  • Freund, K., Watson, R., & Rienzo, D. (1988). The value of self-reports in the study of voyeurism and exhibitionism. Annals of Sex Research, 1, 244-262.

    Google Scholar 

  • Furby, L., Weinrott, M. R., & Blackshaw, L. (1989). Sex offender recidivism: A review. Psychological Bulletin, 105, 3-30.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gebhard, P. H., Gagnon, J. H., Pomeroy, W. B., & Christenson, C. V. (1965). Sex offenders: An analysis of types. London: Heinemann.

    Google Scholar 

  • Grann, M., Langstroem, N., Tengstroem, A., & Stalenheim, E. G. (1998). Reliability of file-based retrospective ratings of psychopathy with the PCL-R. Journal of Personality Assessment, 70(3), 416-426.

    Google Scholar 

  • Grassberger, R. (1964). Der Exhibitionismus. Kriminalistik in Oesterreich, 18, 557-562.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hanson, R. K., & Bussiére, M. T. (1998). Predicting relapse—A meta-analysis of sexual offender recidivism studies. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 66, 348-362.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hare, R. D. (1991). Manual for the Revised Psychopathy Checklist. Toronto, ON: Multi-Health Systems.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hare, R. D., Forth, A. E., & Strachan, K. E. (1992). Psychopathy and crime across the life span. In R. D. Peters, R. J. McMahon, & V. L. Quinsey (Eds.), Aggression and violence throughout the lifespan (pp. 285-300). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hare, R. D., Harpur, T. J., Hakstian, A. R., Forth, A., Hart, S. D., & Newman, J. P. (1990). The Revised Psychopathy Checklist: Descriptive statistics, reliability and factor structure. Psychological Assessment: A Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 2, 338-341.

    Google Scholar 

  • Harpur, T. J., Hare, R. D., & Hakstian, A. R. (1989). Two factor conceptualization of psychopathy: Construct validity and implications. Psychological Assessment: A Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 1, 6-17.

    Google Scholar 

  • Harris, G. T., Rice, M. E., & Quinsey, V. L. (1993). Violent recidivism of mentally disordered offenders: The development of a statistical prediction instrument. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 20(4), 315-335.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hucker, S., Langevin, R., Dickey, R., Handy, L., Chambers, J., Wright, S., et al. (1988). Cerebral damage and dysfunction in sexually aggressive men. Annals of Sex Research, 1, 33-47.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hucker, S., Langevin, R., Wortzman, G., Bain, J., Handy, L., Chambers, J., et al. (1986). Neuropsy-chological impairment in pedophiles. Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science, 18(4), 440-448.

    Google Scholar 

  • Karpman, B. (1954). The sexual offender and his offenses: Etiology, pathology, psychodynamics and treatment. New York: Julian.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kosson, D. S., Smith, S. S., & Newman, J. P. (1990). Evaluating the construct validity of psychopathy on black and white male inmates: Three preliminary studies. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 99, 250-259.

    Google Scholar 

  • Laws, D. R. (1996). Marching into the past: A critique of Card and Olsen. Sexual Abuse: A Journal of Research and Treatment, 8(4), 273-275.

    Google Scholar 

  • Macdonald, J. M. (1971). Rape: Offenders and their victims. Springfield, IL: Thomas.

    Google Scholar 

  • Magruder-Habib, K., Durand, A. M., & Frey, K. A. (1991). Alcohol abuse and alcoholism in primary health care settings. Journal of Family Practice, 32, 406-413.

    Google Scholar 

  • Magruder-Habib, K., Stevens, H. A., & Ailing, W. C. (1993). Relative performance of the MAST, VAST and CAGE versus DSM-III-R criteria for alcohol dependence. Journal of Clinical Epidemiology, 46, 435-441.

    Google Scholar 

  • Marshall, W. L., & Barbaree, H. E. (1989). Sexual violence. In K. Howells & C. R. Hollin (Eds.), Clinical Approaches to Violence. Chichester, UK: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Marshall, W. L., Eccles, A., & Barbaree, H. E. (1991). The treatment of exhibitionists: A focus on sexual deviance versus cognitive and relationship features. Behavioural Research and Therapy, 20(2), 120-135.

    Google Scholar 

  • Marshall, W. L., & Fernandez, Y. M. (2000). Phallometric testing with sexual offenders: Limits to its value. Clinical Psychology Review, 20(7), 807-822.

    Google Scholar 

  • Marshall, W. L., Payne, K., Barbaree, H. E., & Eccles, A. (1991). Exhibitionists: Sexual Preferences for exposing. Behavioural Research and Therapy, 29(1), 37-40.

    Google Scholar 

  • Murphy, W. D. (1997). Exhibitionism, psychopathology and theory. In E. R. Laws & O'Donohue (Eds.), Sexual deviance, theory, assessment and treatment. New York: Guilford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Proulx, J., Pellerin, B., Paradis, Y., McKibben, A., Aubut, J., & Quimet, M. (1997). Static and dynamic predictors of recidivism in sexual aggressors. Sexual Abuse: A Journal of Research and Treatment, 9, 7-27.

    Google Scholar 

  • Quinsey, V. L., Lalumiere, M. L., Rice, M. E., & Harris, G. T. (1995). Predicting sexual offenses. In J. C. Campbell (Ed.), Assessing dangerousness. Violence by sexual offenders, batterers, and child abusers. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Quinsey, V. L., Rice, M. E., & Harris, G. T. (1995). Actuarial prediction of sexual recidivism. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 10(1), 85-105.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rada, R. T., Laws, D. R., & Kellner, R. (1976). Plasma testosterone levels in the rapist. Psychosomatic Medicine, 38, 257-267.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rada, R. T., Laws, D. R., Kellner, R., Stivastava, L., & Peake, G. (1983). Plasma androgens in violent and nonviolent sex offenders. Bulletin of the American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law, 11, 149-158.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rice, M. E., Quinsey, V. L., & Harris, G. T. (1991). Sexual recidivism among child molesters released from a maximum security psychiatric institution. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 59, 381-386.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rooth, G. (1971). Indecent exposure and exhibitionism. British Journal of Hospital Medicine, 5, 521-533.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rooth, G. (1973). Exhibitionism, sexual violence and paedophilia. British Journal of Psychiatry, 122, 705-710.

    Google Scholar 

  • Seltzer, M. (1971). The Michigan Alcoholism Screening Test: A quest for a new diagnostic instrument. American Journal of Psychiatry, 127, 1653-1658.

    Google Scholar 

  • Seltzer, M., Vinokur, A., & van Rooijan, L. (1975). A self-administered Short Michigan Alcoholism Screening Test (SMAST). Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 36, 117-126.

    Google Scholar 

  • Serin, R. C., & Amos, N. L. (1995). The role of psychopathy in the assessment of dangerousness. International Journal of Law and Psychiatry, 18(2), 231-238.

    Google Scholar 

  • Serin, R. C., Malcolm, P. B., Khanna, A., & Barbaree, H. E. (1994). Psychopathy and deviant sexual arousal in incarcerated sexual offenders. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 9(1), 3-11.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sugarman, P., Dumughn, C., Saad, K., Hinder, S., & Bluglass, R. (1994). Dangerousness in exhibitionists. Journal of Forensic Psychiatry, 5(2), 287-296.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tabachnick, B. G., & Fidell, L. S. (1989). Using multivariate statistics (2nd ed.). New York: Harper & Row.

    Google Scholar 

  • Walker, N., & McCabe, S. (1973). Crime and insanity in England: Vol. 2. New solutions and New Problems. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Weinrott, M. R., & Saylor, M. (1991). Self-report of crimes committed by sex offenders. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 6(3), 286-300.

    Google Scholar 

  • West, D. J. (1987). Sexual crimes and confrontations: A study of victims and offenders. London: Gower.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wong, S. (1988). Is Hare's Psychopathy Checklist reliable without the interview? Psychological Reports, 62(3), 931-934.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. School of Psychology, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada

    Sharon R. Rabinowitz Greenberg & Philip Firestone

  2. Department of Psychiatry, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada

    Philip Firestone & John M. Bradford

  3. Department of Psychiatry and Behavioural Science, University of Western Australia, Australia

    David M. Greenberg

Authors
  1. Sharon R. Rabinowitz Greenberg
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Philip Firestone
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. John M. Bradford
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. David M. Greenberg
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Greenberg, S.R.R., Firestone, P., Bradford, J.M. et al. Prediction of Recidivism in Exhibitionists: Psychological, Phallometric, and Offense Factors. Sex Abuse 14, 329–347 (2002). https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1019921720366

Download citation

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1019921720366

Search

Navigation