Abstract
Current research has found that students who experience emotional and behavioural difficulties (EBDs) in school are not identified early, their behaviours (and causes) are often misrepresented, and they may not receive appropriate intervention. In this paper we review current theories (and their shortcomings) on the identification and recommended actions for students who experience EBDs, acknowledging the importance of teachers' initial identification (as schools are the social arena within which most students who experience EBDs are first identified). We suggest that teachers' identification may not be informed by the full range of theories and explanations for EBDs and that they often disregard the emotional and relational aspect of EBDs which focus on individual students and fail to recognize the social context in which the students operate. These suggestions were supported in a questionnaire-based study. Teachers' identification of EBDs coincides with predominant theoretical explanations based upon an individual's inability to fit into society, seeing EBDs as a product rather than social process. Such a situation may encourage instability in classrooms and may not allow for adequate intervention for EBDs.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Abrams, Dominic, Simpson, Amanda, & Hogg, Michael A. (1987). Different views: The impact of sex, area of residence, and victimisation on teenagers explanations for delinquency. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 16, 401–413.
Asarnow, Joan-Rosenbaum, Goldstein, Michael J., & Hamilton, Elizabeth (1994). Family expressed emotion, childhood onset of depression and childhood onset schizo spectrum disorders: Is expressed emotion a nonspecific correlate of child psychopathology or a specific risk factor for depression? Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 22(2), 129–156.
Astor, Ron-Avi, Pitner, Ronaldo, & Duncan, Brent B. (1996). Ecological approaches to mental health consultation with teachers on issues related to youth and school violence. Journal of Negro Education, 65(3), 336–355.
Bandura, Albert (1977). Social learning theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Bennett, Neville & Dunne, Elisabeth (1992). Managing classroom groups. London: Simon & Schuster.
Betts, F. (1992). How systems thinking applies to education. Educational Leadership, 50(3), 38–41.
Biederman, Joseph, Mick, Eric, & Faraone, Stephen (1998). Depression in AD/HD children. True depression or demoralization. Journal of Affective Disorders, 47(1), 113–122.
Brodzinsky, David M, Schechter, Diane E., Braff, Anne M., & Singer, Leslie M. (1984). Psychological and academic adjustment in adopted students. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 52, 582–590.
Chazan, Maurice, Laing, Alice F., & Davies, Diane (1994). Emotional and behavioural difficulties in middle childhood. London: Falmer Press.
Cooper, Paul (1997). Biology, behaviour and education: ADHD and the biopsychosocial perspective. Educational and Child Psychology, 14(1), 31–39.
Cooper, Paul (1998). The reality of AD/HD: An educational and cultural analysis. In P. Cooper & K. Ideus (Eds.), Attention hyperactivity disorder: Educational, medical and cultural issues (2nd ed.). Maidstone: AWCEBD.
Cooper, Paul (1999). The further evolution of emotional and behavioural difficulties: Bringing the biopsychosocial approach to education. In P. Cooper (Ed.), Understanding and supporting children with emotional and behavioural difficulties. London: Jessica Kingsley Publishers.
Cooper, Paul & Davies, Chris (1993). The impact of national curriculum assessment on teachers' thinking and classroom practice in English secondary schools. Teaching and Teacher Education, 9(5–6), 559–570.
Cooper, Paul & Ideus, K. (1995). Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: Trojan horse or gift horse. In P. Cooper & K. Ideus (Eds.), Attention hyperactivity disorder: Educational, medical and cultural issues. Maidstone: AWCEBD.
Cooper, Paul & Maras, Pam (1998). “Breaking the mould”: Towards a reconceptualisation of EBDs in schoolchildren and young people. Paper presented at the British Psychological Society Annual Conference, Brighton.
Cooper, Paul & McIntyre, Donald (1996). Effective teaching and learning: Teachers' and students' perspectives. Buckingham: Open University Press.
Cooper, Paul & Shea, Trevor (1998). Pupils perceptions of AD/HD. Emotional and Behavioural Difficulties, 3(3), 36–48.
Cooper, Paul, Smith, Colin, & Upton, Graham (1994). Emotional and behavioural difficulties. Theory to practice. London: Routledge.
Cooper, Paul & Upton, Graham (1990). An ecosystemic approach to emotional and behavioural problems in schools. Educational Psychology, 10(4), 301–321.
Costello, Brian R. (1998). A systems approach to assess severe behaviour problems. Journal of Instructional Psychology, 25(1), 19–20.
Crick, Nicki R. & Ladd, Gary (1991). Children's perceptions of the consequences of aggressive behaviour: Do the ends justify the means? Developmental Psychology, 26(6), 12–20.
Department for Education (1993). Exclusions: A discussion paper. London: HMSO.
Department of Education and Science (1955). Report of the Committee on Maladjusted Students. (The Underwood Report). London: HMSO.
Department of Education and Science (1978). Report of the Committee of Enquiry into the Education of Handicapped Students and Young People (The Warnock Report). London: HMSO.
Department of Education and Science (1981). Education Act 1981. London: HMSO.
Dodge, Kenneth A. (1993). Social-cognitive mechanisms in the development of conduct disorder and depression. Annual Review of Psychology, 44, 559–584.
Dodge, Kenneth A. & Feldman, Esther (1990). Issues in social cognition and sociometric status. In S. R. Ash & J. D. Coie (Eds.), Peer rejection in childhood. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Dodge, Kenneth A. & Tomlin, Angela (1987). Utilization of self-schemas as a mechanism of interpersonal bias in aggressive children. Social Cognition, 5, 280–300.
Emler, Nick & Reicher, Stephen (1995). Adolescence and delinquency. Oxford: Blackwell.
Galton, Maurice & Williamson, John (1992). Group work in the primary classroom. London: Routledge.
Goldstein, Sam (1994). Managing children's behavior in the classroom: A biopsychosocial approach. New York: John Wiley.
Goldstein, Sam (1997). A pilot study of neoropsychological function in girls with ADHD. Journal of American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 36(9), 1162.
Goldstein, Sam (1998). Understanding and assessing AD/HD and related educational, behavioural and emotional disorders. In P. Cooper & C. Ideus (Eds.), Attention hyperactivity disorder: Educational, medical and cultural issues (2nd ed.). Maidstone: AWCEBD.
Greeno, James (1997). The situativity of knowing, learning and research. American Psychologist, 53(1), 5–26.
Guidubaldi, John, Cleminshaw, Helen K., Perry, Joseph D., Nastasi, Bonnie K., & Lightel, Jeanine (1986). The role of selected family environment factors in children's post-divorce adjustment. Family Relations, 35, 141–151.
Hargreaves, David (1972). Interpersonal relations and education. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul.
Hargreaves, D., Hestor, S. K., & Meller, F. J. (1975). Deviance in classrooms. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul.
Harrington, Richard, Rutter, Michael, & Fambonne, Eric (1996). Developmental pathways in depression: Multiple meanings, antecedents and endpoints. Development and Psychopathology, 8(r), 601–616.
Hetherington, E. Mavis, Cox, Mavis, & Cox, Roger (1979). Play and social interaction in children following divorce. Journal of Social Issues, 35, 26–49.
Hollenbeck, Albert R. (1976). Problems of reliability in observational research. In G. Sackett (Ed.), Observing behavior, Vol 2: Data collection and analysis methods. Baltimore: University and Park Press.
Hollin, Clive R. (1990). Social skills training with delinquents: A look at the evidence and some recommendations for practice, Journal of Social Work, 20. 483–493.
Hollin, Clive R. & Henderson, Monika (1981). The effects of social skill training with incarcerated delinquent adolescents. International Journal of Behavioral Social Work and Abstracts, 1, 145–155.
Ideus, Katherine & Cooper, Paul (1998). Chemical cosh or therapeutic tool? Towards a balanced view of the use of stimulant medication with children diagnosed with Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. In P. Cooper & C. Ideus (Eds.), Attention hyperactivity disorder: Educational, medical and cultural issues (2nd ed.). Maidstone: AWCEBD
Johnson, David & Johnson, Roger (1998). Teaching all students how to mange conflicts constructively. The peacemakers program. Journal of Negro Education, 65(3), 322–335.
Kamps, Debra & Tankersley, Melody (1996). Prevention of behavioral and conflict disorders: Research issues. Behavioural Disorders, 22(1), 41–48.
Kewley, Geoff (1995). Medical aspects of assessment and treatment of students with attention deficit disorders. In P. Cooper & K. Ideus (Eds.), Attention hyperactivity disorder: Educational, medical and cultural issues (2nd ed.). Maidstone: AWCEBD.
Kutnick, Peter (1988). Relationships in the primary school classroom. London: Paul Chapman.
Kutnick, Peter (1994). Developing pupils social skills for learning. In. H. C. Foot, C. J. Howe, A. Anderson, A. K. Tomie, & D. A. Warden (Eds.), Group and interactive learning. Southampton: CMP.
Kutnick, Peter (1997). Perceptions of preparation for teaching competence. Journal of Further and Higher Education, 21, 219–228.
Kutnick, Peter & Brees, Patricia (1982). The development of cooperation: Explorations in cognitive and moral competence and social authority. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 52, 361–365.
Kutnick, Peter & Marshall, David (1993). Development of social skills and the use of the microcomputer in the primary school classroom. British Educational Research Journal, 19, 517–534.
Kutnick, Peter & Rogers, Colin (Eds.) (1994). Groups in schools. London: Cassell.
Laslett, Robert, Cooper, Paul, Maras, Pam, & Rimmer, Alan (1998). Maladjustment, emotional and behavioural difficulties and beyond: 50 years of changing perceptions since 1945. Maidstone: AWCEBD.
Levin, Barbara (1995). Using the case method in teacher education: The role of discussion and experience in teachers' thinking about cases. Teacher and Teacher Education, 11(1), 63–79.
Lupton Smith, Helen, Curruthers, William L., Flythe, Reggie, & Goettee, Eleanor (1997). Conflict resolution as peer mediation programs for elementary and high school students. School Counselor, 43(5), 374–391.
Maras, Pam (1996a). “I'd rather have dyslexia”: Perceptions of EBDs. Educational and Child Psychology, 13(1), 32–43.
Maras, Pam (1996b). “EBDs whose special needs?” Emotional and Behavioural Difficulties, 1(1), 14–22.
Maras, Pam & Brown, Rupert (1996). Effects of contact on children's attitudes toward disability: A longitudinal study. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 26(23), 2113–2134.
Maras, Pam & Cooper, Paul (1999). Sex differences, gender issues and EBDs. In P. Cooper (Ed.), Understanding and supporting children with emotional and behavioural difficulties. London: Jessica Kingsley Publishers.
Maras, Pam & Hall, Claire (1998). Children and young people with EBDs: Toward a preventative service in an LEA. London: University of Greenwich.
Maras, Pam & Masser, Barbara (1996). “What are EBDs?” A summary review of medical, cognitive, social and societal perspectives. London: Greenwich University Press.
Maras, Pam & Redmayne, Terry with Hall, Claire, Braithwaite, Deborah, & Prior, Philip (1997). “Helicopter children” and “butterfly brains.” ADHD: Perceptions, issues and implications. Educational and Child Psychology, 14(1), 39–50.
Meller, William & Borchardt, Carrie M. (1996). Comorbidity of major depression and conduct disorder. Journal of Affective Disorders, 39(2), 123–126.
Ogilvy, Carole M. (1994). Social skills training with students and adolescents: a review of the evidence on effectiveness. Educational Psychology, 14, 73–83.
Ornitz, Edward, Gabikian, Patrik, & Russell, Andrew (1997). Affective violence and arousal in ADHD and normal boys during startle habituation experiment. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 36(12), 1698–1705.
Patterson, G.R. (1974). Interventions for boys with conduct problems: multiple settings, treatments, and criteria. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 42(4), 471–481.
Piaget, Jean (1995). Sociological studies (trans. L. Smith). London: Routledge.
Pelligrini, Anthony, Davis-Huberty, P., & Jones, Ithel (1996). The effects of recess timing on children's playground and classroom behaviors. American Educational Research Journal, 32(4), 845–864.
Prior, Philip (1997). Response to open dialogue: The myth of the myth of attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder by Paul Cooper. British Psychological Society Education Section Review, 21(1), 17–21.
Pullantz, M. & Gottman, John (1981). Social skills and group acceptance. In S. R. Asher & J. Gottman (Eds.), The development of children's friendships. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Raven, John (1997). Education, educational research, ethics and the BPS. Education Section Review, 21(2), 3–11.
Reid, Robert & Maag, John W. (1997). Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: Over here and over there. Educational and Child Psychology, 14(1), 10–21.
Satterfield, James, Satterfield, Breena, & Schell, Anne (1987). Therapeutic interventions to prevent delinquency in hyperactive boys. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 26, 56–64.
Schaffer, H. Rudolph (1990). Making decisions about students. Oxford: Blackwell.
Slee, Roger (1995) Changing theories and practices of discipline. London: Falmer.
Smith, Peter, Cowie, Helen, & Berdondini Lucia (1994). Cooperation and bullying. In P. Kutnick & C. Rogers (Eds.), Groups in schools. London: Cassell.
Spence, S. & Dadds, Mark (1996). Preventing childhood anxiety disorders. Behaviour Change, 13(4), 241–249.
Sroufe, L. Alan (1983). Infant-caregiver attachment and patterns of adaption in pre-school. In M. Perlmutter (Ed.), Minnesota Symposium on Child Psychology, 18. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Stones, E. (1987). Teaching practice supervision: Bridge between theory and practice. European Journal of Teacher Education, 10(1), 67–79.
Tajfel, Henri (1978). Intergroup behaviour: Individualistic perspectives. In H. Tajfel & C. Fraser, Introducing social psychology. London: Penguin.
Tajfel, Henri & Turner, John C. (1986). The social identity theory of intergroup behaviour. In S. Worchel & W. C. Austin (Eds.), Psychology of intergroup relations. Chicago: Nelson Hall.
Tomlinson, Sally (1982). A sociology of special education. London: Routledge.
Vygotsky, L. (1978). Mind and society: The development of higher mental processes. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Webster-Stratton, Carolyn (1991). Annotation: Strategies for helping families with conduct disordered students. Journal of Student Psychology and Psychiatry, 32, 1047–1062.
Wheldall, Kevin & Merritt, Frank (1989). Positive teaching in the secondary school. London: Paul Chapman Press.
Yee, Mia & Brown, Rupert (1992). Self-evaluations and intergroup attitudes in students aged three to nine. Child Development, 63, 619–629.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Maras, P., Kutnick, P. Emotional and Behavioural Difficulties in Schools: Consideration of Relationships Between Theory and Practice. Social Psychology of Education 3, 135–153 (1999). https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1009618701899
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1009618701899