Abstract
Despite being developed before the formal introduction of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) within the diagnostic literature, the Impact of Event Scale (Horowitz, Wilner, & Alvarez, 1979) remains one of the most widely used self-report measures of posttraumatic stress. This paper presents an overview of research using the IES in an attempt to assess its psychometric status. It is concluded that the psychometric properties of the IES are satisfactory (although not as a PTSD diagnostic measure) and that continued use of the IES as a measure of intrusive and avoidant processes is warranted.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
American Psychiatric Association (1980). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (3rd ed.). Washington, DC: APA.
American Psychiatric Association (1994). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed.). Washington, DC: APA.
Brewin, C. R., Dalgleish, T., & Joseph, S. (1996). A dual representation theory of posttraumatic stress disorder. Psychological Review, 103, 670–686.
Brom, D., Kleber, R. J., & Defares, P. B. (1986). Traumatische ervaringen en psychotherapie (Traumatic experiences and psychotherapy). Lisse: Swets & Zeitlinger.
Bryant, R. A., & Harvey, A. G. (1996a). Initial posttraumatic stress responses following motor vehicle accidents. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 9, 223–234.
Bryant, R. A., & Harvey, A. G. (1996b). Posttraumatic stress reactions in firefighters. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 9, 51–62.
Bryant, R. A., & Harvey, A. G. (1996c). Visual imagery in posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 9, 613–619.
Comrey, A. L. (1988). Factor-analytic methods of scale development n personality and clinical psychology. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 54, 754–761.
Creamer, M., Burgess, P., & Pattison, P. (1992). Reaction to trauma: A cognitive processing model. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 101, 452–459.
Dagan, Y., & Lavie, P. (1991). Sleep disorders in war-related PTSD patients: How reliable are the subjective assessments? Sleep Research, 20, 177.
Dalgleish, T., Joseph, S., Thrasher, S., Tranah, T., & Yule, W. (1996). Crisis support following the Herald of Free Enterprise disaster: A longitudinal perspective. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 9, 833–845.
Davidson, J., Roth, S., & Newman, E. (1991). Fluoxetine in posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 4, 419–423.
Elliott, D. M., & Briere, J. (1995). Posttraumatic stress associated with delayed recall of sexual abuse: A general population study. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 8, 629–647.
Fairbank, J. A., McCaffrey, R. J., & Keane, T. M. (1985). Psychometric detection of fabricated symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry, 142, 501–503.
Foa, E. B., Riggs, D. S., Dancu, C. V., & Rothbaum, B. O. (1993). Reliability and validity of a brief instrument for assessing posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 6, 459–473.
Foa, E. B., Riggs, D. S., & Gershuny, B. S. (1995). Arousal, numbing, and intrusion: Symptom structure of PTSD following assault. American Journal of Psychiatry, 152, 116–120.
Ford, J. D., Greaves, D., Chandler, P., Thacker, B., Sennhauser, S., & Schwartz, L. (1997). Time-limited psychotherapy with Operation Desert Storm veterans. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 10, 655–664.
Gorsuch, R. L. (1983). Factor analysis. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Grainger, R. D., Levin, C., Allen-Byrd, L. A., Doctor, R. M., & Lee, H. (1997). An empirical evaluation of eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR) with survivors of natural disaster. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 10, 665–671.
Green, B. L., Grace, M. C., Lindy, J. D., & Leonard, A. C. (1990). Race differences in response to combat stress. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 3, 379–393.
Green, B. L., Grace, M. C., Vary, M. G., Kramer, T. L., Gleser, G. C., & Leonard, A. C. (1994). Children of disaster in the second decade: A 17 year follow-up of Buffalo Creek survivors. Journal of the American Academy Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 33, 71–79.
Haynes, S. N., Richard, D. C. S., & Kubany, E. S. (1995). Content validity in psychological assessment: A functional approach to concepts and methods. Psychological Assessment, 7, 238–247.
Hodgkinson, P., & Joseph, S. (1995). Factor analysis of the Impact of Event Scale with female bank staff following a raid. Personality and Individual Differences, 19, 773–775.
Horowitz, M. (1976). Stress response syndromes. New York: Jason Aronson.
Horowitz, M. (1982). Stress response syndromes and their treatment. In L. Goldberger & S. Breznitz (Eds.), Handbook of stress: Theoretical and clinical aspects (pp. 711–732). New York: Free Press.
Horowitz, M., Wilner., & Alvarez, W. (1979). Impact of Event Scale: A measure of subjective stress. Psychosomatic Medicine, 41, 209–218.
Hossack, A., & Bentall, R. P. (1996). Elimination of posttraumatic symptomatology by relaxation and visual-kinesthetic dissociation. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 9, 99–110.
Hovens, J. E., van der Ploeg, H. M., Bramsen, I., Klaarenbeek, M. T. A., Schreuder, J. N., & Rivero, V. V. (1994). The development of the self-rating inventory for posttraumatic stress disorder. Acta Psychiatric Scandinavia, 90, 172–183.
Johnsen, B. H., Eid, J., Lovstad, T., & Michelsen, L. T. (1997). Posttraumatic stress symptoms in nonexposed, victims, and spontaneous rescuers after an avalanche. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 10, 133–140.
Joseph, S., Williams, R., Yule, W., & Walker, A. (1992). Factor analysis of the Impact of Event Scale in survivors of two disasters at sea. Personality and Individual Differences, 13, 693–697.
Joseph, S., Yule, W., Williams, R., & Hodgkinson, P. (1993). The Herald of Free Enterprise disaster: Measuring post-traumatic symptoms thirty months on. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 32, 327–332.
Joseph, S., Yule, W., Williams, R. (1994). The Herald of Free Enterprise disaster: The relationship of intrusion and avoidance to subsequent depression and anxiety. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 32, 115–117.
Joseph, S., Yule, W., & Williams, R. (1995). Emotional processing in survivors of the Jupiter cruise ship disaster. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 33, 187–192.
Joseph, S., Dalgleish, T., Thrasher, S., Yule, W., Williams, R., & Hodgkinson, P. (1996). Chronic emotional processing in survivors of the Herald of Free Enterprise disaster: The relationship of intrusion and avoidance at 3 years to distress at 5 years. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 34, 357–360.
Joseph, S., Williams, R., & Yule, W. (1997). Understanding post-traumatic stress: A psychosocial perspective on PTSD and treatment. Chichester. Wiley.
Keane, T. M., Malloy, P. P., & Fairbank, J. A. (1984). Empirical development of an MMPI subscale for the assessment of combat-related PTSD. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 52, 888–891.
King, D. W., Leskin, G. A., King, L. A., & Weathers, F. (1998). Confirmatory factor analysis of the Clinician Administered PTSD scale: Evidence for the dimensionality of posttrauamtic stress disorder. Psychological Assessment, 10, 90–96.
Kopel, H., & Friedman, M. (1997). Posttraumatic symptoms in South African police exposed to violence. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 10, 307–317.
Laufer, R. S., Brett, E., & Gallops, M. S. (1985). Dimensions of post-traumatic stress disorder among Vietnam veterans. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 173, 538–545.
Lees-Haley, P. R. (1990). Malingering mental disorder on the Impact of Events Scale. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 3, 315–321.
McFall, M. E., Smith, D. E., Roszell, D. K., Tarver, D. J., & Malas, K. L. (1990). Convergent validity of measures of PTSD in Vietnam combat veterans. American Journal of Psychiatry, 147, 645–648.
McFarlane, A. C. (1992a). Avoidance and intrusion in posttraumatic stress disorder. The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 180, 439–445.
McFarlane, A. C. (1992b). Commentary. Posttraumatic stress disorder among injured survivors of a terrorist attack: Predictive value of early intrusion and avoidance symptoms. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 180, 599–600.
McNally, R. J. (1991). Assessment of posttraumatic stress disorder in children. Psychological Assessment, 3, 531–537.
Neal, L. A., Busuttil, W., Rollins, J., Herepath, R., Strike, P., & Turnbull, G. (1994). Convergent validity of measures of post-traumatic stress disorder in a mixed military and civilian population. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 7, 447–455.
Newman, M., & Lee, D. (1997). Diagnosis and treatment. In D. Black, D., M. Newman, J. Harris-Hendriks, & G. Mezey. (Eds.), Psychological trauma: A developmental approach (pp. 219–237). London: Gaskell.
Orr, S. P., Pitman, R. K., Lasko, N. B., & Herz, L. R. (1993). Psychophysiological assessment of posttraumatic stress disorder imagery in World War II and Korean combat veterans. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 102, 152–159.
Perry, S., Difede, J., Musngi, G., Frances, A. J., & Jacobsberg, L. (1992). Predictors of posttraumatic stress disorder after burn injury. American Journal of Psychiatry, 149, 931–935.
Power, M., & Dalgleish, T. (1997). Cognition and emotion: From order to disorder. Hove: Psychology Press.
Raphael, B. (1997). The interaction of trauma and grief. In D. Black, M. Newman, J. Harris-Hendriks, & G. Mezey. (Eds.), Psychological trauma: A developmental approach (pp. 31–43). London: Gaskell.
Richards, D. A., Lovell, K., & Marks, I. M. (1994). Post-traumatic stress disorder: Evaluation of a behavioral treatment program. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 7, 669–680.
Robbins, I., & Hunt, N. (1996). Validation of the IES as a measure of the long-term impact of war trauma. British Journal of Health Psychology, 1, 87–90.
Rothbaum, B. O., Foa, E. B., Riggs, D. S., Murdock, T., & Walsh, W. (1992). Aprospective examination of post-traumatic stress disorder in rape victims. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 5, 455–476.
Schwarzwald, J., Solomon, Z., Weisenberg, M., & Mikulincer, M. (1987). Validation of the Impact of Event Scale for psychological sequelae of combat. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 55, 251–256.
Shalev, A.Y. (1992). Posttraumatic stress disorder among injured survivors of a terrorist attack. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 180, 505–509.
Solomon, Z., Mikulincer, M., & Arad, R. (1991). Monitoring and blunting: Implications for combatrelated post-traumatic stress disorder. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 4, 209–221.
Taylor, S., Kuch, K., Koch, W. J., Crockett, D. J., & Passey, G. (1998). The structure of posttraumatic stress symptoms. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 107, 154–160.
Velsen, C. V., Gorst-Unsworth, C., & Turner, S. (1996). Survivors of torture and organized violence: Demography and diagnosis. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 9, 181–193.
Weathers, F. W., & Litz, B. T. (1994). Psychometric properties of the Clinician Administered PTSD Scale-Form 1 (CAPS-1). PTSD Research Quarterly, 5, 2–6.
Weathers, F. W., Keane, T. M., King, L. A., & King, D. W. (1996). Psychometric theory in the development of posttraumatic stress disorder assessment tools. In J. P. Wilson & T. M. Keane (Eds.), Assessing psychological trauma and PTSD (pp. 98–135). New York: Guilford Press.
Weiss, D. S., & Marmar, C. R. (1997). The Impact of Event Scale—Revised. In J. P. Wilson & T. M. Keane (Eds.), Assessing psychological trauma and PTSD (pp. 399–411). New York: Guilford Press.
Williams, R., Joseph, S., & Yule, W. (1994). The role of avoidance in coping with disasters: A study of survivors of the capsize of the Herald of Free Enterprise. Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy, 1, 87–94.
Wilson, J. P., & Keane, T. M. (Eds.) (1996). Assessing psychological trauma and PTSD. New York: Guilford Press.
Yule, W., Ten Bruggencate, S., & Joseph, S. (1994). Principal component analysis of the Impact of Event Scale in children who survived a shipping disaster. Personality and Individual Differences, 16, 685–691.
Zilberg, N. J., Weiss, D. S., & Horowitz, M. J. (1982). Impact of Event Scale: A cross-validation study and some empirical evidence supporting a conceptual model of stress response syndromes. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 50, 407–414.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
About this article
Cite this article
Joseph, S. Psychometric Evaluation of Horowitz's Impact of Event Scale: A Review. J Trauma Stress 13, 101–113 (2000). https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1007777032063
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1007777032063