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Quality and Ecology of Adversity as Common Mechanisms of Risk and Resilience

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American Journal of Community Psychology

Abstract

This paper proposes common mechanisms to explain the effects of adversities and of resources that promote resilience. Adversities threaten the satisfaction of basic human needs and the acquisitions of competencies to carry out valued social roles. Adversities can also be characterized in terms of their ecological properties of occurrence in time, and place. Resilience resources at the individual, microsystem and macro levels reduce the negative effects of adversities through their effects on satisfaction of basic human needs and their effects on the occurrence of adversities. The effects of resilience resources are described as preventive, protective and promotive. Implications are presented for the development of interventions to promote resilience.

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  • Werner, E. E., & Smith, R. S. (1992). Overcoming the odds: High risk children from birth to adulthood. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.

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  • West, S., Sandler, I., Pillow, D., Baca, L., & Gersten, J. (1991). The use of structural equation modeling in generative research: Toward the design of a preventive intervention for bereaved children. American Journal of Community Psychology, 19, 459–489.

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  • Wolchik, S., Tein, J.-Y., Wilcox, K., & Sandler, I. N. (2000). Fear of abandonment as a mediator of the effects of stress and parenting on children's psychological problems: A prospective longitudinal study. Manuscript submitted for publication.

  • Wolchik, S. A., Beals, J., & Sandler, I. N. (1989). Mapping children's support networks: Conceptual and methodological issues. In D. Belle (Ed.), Children's social networks and social supports (pp. 191–221). New York: Wiley.

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  • Wolchik, S. A., Ruehlman, L. S., Braver, S. L., & Sandler, I. N. (1989). Social support of children of divorce: Direct and stress buffering effects. American Journal of Community Psychology, 17, 485–501.

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  • Wolchik, S. A., & Sandler, I. N. (1997). Handbook of children's coping: Linking theory and intervention. New York: Plenum.

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  • Wolchik, S. A., West, S. G., Sandler, I. N., Tein, J.-Y., Coatsworth, D., Lengua, L., Weiss, L., Anderson, E. R., Greene, S. M., & Griffin, W. A. (2000). The New Beginnings Program for divorced families: An experimental evaluation of theory-based single-component and dual-component programs. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 68, 843–856.

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  • Wolchik, S. A., Wilcox, K. L., Tein, J.-Y., & Sandler, I. N. (2000). Maternal acceptance and consistency of discipline as buffers of divorce stressors on children's psychological adjustment problems. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 28, 87–102.

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  • Wyman, P. A., Sandler, I., Wolchik, S., & Nelson, K. (2000). Resilience as cumulative competence promotion and stress protection: Theory and intervention. In D. Cichetti, J. Rappaport, I. Sandler, & R. Weissberg (Eds.), Promotion of psychological wellness. New York: Plenum.

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Books and Special Issues of Journals

  • Sandler, I. (1985). Children's environments. [Special issue]. American Journal of Community Psychology.

  • S. A. Wolchik, & I. N. Sandler (Eds.). (1997). Handbook of children's coping with common life stressors. New York: Plenum.

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  • Sandler, I. N. (1997). Meta-analysis of primary prevention programs for children and adolescents. [Special issue]. American Journal of Community Psychology.

  • Cichetti, D., Rappaport, J., Sandler, I., & Weissberg, R. (2000). The promotion of wellness in children and adolescents. Washington, DC: CWLA Press.

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Book Chapters

  • Sandler, I. N. (1979). Life stress events and community psychology. In I. G. Sarason and C. D. Spielberger (Eds.), Stress and anxiety (Vol. 6). New York: Wiley.

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  • Sandler, I., Reese, F., Spencer, L., & Harpin, P. (1983). Personal environment interaction and locus of control: Laboratory, therapy and classroom. In H. Lefcourt (Ed.), Advances in research with the locus of control construct (Vol. 2). New York: Academic Press.

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  • Wolchik, S., Fogas, B., & Sandler, I., (1984). Assessment of child stressors in separation and divorce (pp. 79–97). In J. H. Humphrey (Ed.), Childhood stress. AMS Press.

  • Sandler, I., Wolchik, S. A., & Braver, S. L. (1985). Social support and children of divorce. In I. G. Sarson & B. R. Sarason (Eds.), Social support: Theory, research and application (pp. 371–391). The Hague: Martinus Nujhof.

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  • Sandler, I., Wolchik, S., Fogas, B., & Braver, S. (1986). Significant events of children of divorce: Toward the assessment of a risky situation. In S. M. Auerbach & A. Stolberg (Eds.), Crisis intervention with children and families (pp. 65–81). New York: Hemisphere.

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  • Sandler, I. N., Wolchik, S., & Braver, S. L. (1988). The stressors of children's post-divorce environment. In S. Wolchik and P. Karoly (Eds.), Children of divorce: Empirical perspectives in adjustment. New York: Garden.

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  • Sandler, I. N., & Guenther, R. R. (1985). Assessment of life stress events. In P. Karoly (Ed.), Measurement strategies in health psychology (pp. 555–600). New York: John Wiley & Sons.

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  • Sandler, I. H., & Barrera, M. B., Jr. (1989). Community psychology. In L. Gregory (Ed.), An introduction to applied psychology. New York: Random House.

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  • Sandler, I. N., Gersten, J. C., Reynold, D., Kallgren, C., & Ramirez, R. (1988). Using theory and data to plan support intervention: Design of a program for bereaved children. In B. Gottlieb (Ed.), Marshalling social support: Formats, processes and effects. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.

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  • Wolchik, S. A., Sandler, I. N., & Braver, S. H. (1987). Social support: Its assessment and relation to children's adjustment. In N. Eisenberg (Ed.), Contemporary topics in developmental psychology. New York: Wiley.

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  • Sandler, I., Miller, P., Short, J., & Wolchik, S. (1988). Social support as a stress buffer for children. In D. Belle (Ed.), Children's social networks and social supports. New York: Wiley.

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  • Wolchik, S., Beals, J., & Sandler, I., (1988). Mapping children's social support networks. In D. Belle (Ed.), Children's social networks and social support. New York: Wiley.

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  • Sandler, I. N. (1990). Critical issues in stress and social competence building prevention research. In P. Muehrer (Ed.), Conceptual models for preventing mental disorder (pp. 99–106). DHHS Publication No. ADM, 90–1713.

  • Braver, S. L, Wolchik, S. A., Sandler, I. N., & Sheets, V. L. (1993). A social exchange model of nonresidential parent involvement. In J. Bray & C. Depner (Eds.), Nonresidential parenting: New vistas in family living (pp. 87–108). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.

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  • Braver, S. L., Wolchik, S. A., Sandler, I. N., & Sheets, V. (1993). A social exchange model of non-custodial parent involvement. In J. Bray & C. Depner (Eds.), Nonresidential parenting: New vistas in family living (pp. 87–108). CA: Sage.

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  • Kliewer, W., Sandler, I. N., & Wolchik, S. (1994). Family socialization of threat appraisal and coping: Coaching, modeling and family context. In F. Nestmann & K. Hurrelmann (Eds.), Social networks and social support in childhood and adolescence (pp. 271–293). New York: Walter de Gruyter.

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  • Sandler, I. N., Wolchik, S. A., MacKinnon, D., Ayers, T. S., & Roosa, M. W. (1997). Developing linkages between theory and interventions in stress and coping processes. In S. A. Wolchik & I. Sandler (Eds.), Handbook of children's coping with common life stressors (pp. 3–41). New York: Plenum.

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  • Lutzke, J., Ayers, T. S., Sandler, I. N., & Barr, A. (1997). Risks and interventions for the parentally bereved child. In S. A. Wolchik & I. Sandler (Eds.), Handbook of children's coping with common life stressors (pp. 215–245). New York: Plenum.

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  • Roosa, M. W., Wolchik, S. A., & Sandler, I. N. (1997). Preventing the negative effects of common stressors: Current status and future directions. In S. A. Wolchik & I. Sandler (Eds.), Handbook of children's coping with common life stressors. pp. 515–535. New York: Plenum.

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  • Sandler, I. N., Gensheimer, L. K., & Braver, S. (2000). Stress: Theory, research and action. In E. Seidman & J. Rappaport (Eds.), Handbook of community psychology. (pp. 187–215). New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Press.

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  • Wyman, P., Sandler, I., Wolchik, S., & Nelson, K. (2000). Resilience theory and interventions: Cumulative developmental promotion and protection. In D. Cichetti, J. Rappaport, I. Sandler, & R. Weissberg (Eds.), The promotion of wellness in children and adolescents. Washington, DC: CWLA Press.

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  • Sandler, I., Ayers, T., Suter, J., Schultz, A., & Twohey, J. (in press). Adversities, strengths and public policy. In. K. Maton, B. Ledbetter, C. Schellenbach, & A. Solarz (Eds.), Strengths-based public policies. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

  • Braver, S., Nelson, K., Ellman, I., & Sandler, I. (in press). Strengths-building public policy for children of divorce. In K. Maton, B. Leadbetter, C. Schellenbach, & A. Solarz (Eds.), Strengths based public policies. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

  • Nelson-Hipke, K., Sandler, I. N., & Wolchik, S. A. (2000). Children of divorce. In G. Fink (Ed.), Encyclopedia of stress (Vol. 1, pp. 730–734). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.

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  • Sandler, I., Wolchik, S., Ayers, T., & Haine, R. (in preparation). Mediators of resilience following parental divorce and parental death. In S. Luthar (Ed.), Resilience and vulnerability: Adaptation in the context of childhood adversities. Cambridge University Press.

Journal Publications

  • Cowen, E. L., Dorr, D. A., Sandler, I. N., & McWilliams, S. (1971). Utilization of nonprofessional child-aide school mental health program. Journal of School Psychology, 9, 131–136.

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  • Sandler, I. N. Characteristics of women working as child-aides in a school-based preventive mental health program (1972). Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 39, 56–61.

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  • Dorr, D. A., Cowen, E. L., Sandler, I. N., & Pratt, D. M. (1973). The dimensionality of a test battery for nonprofessional mental health workers. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 41, 181–186.

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  • Sandler, I. N. (1973). Social history, mental health and community control: Additional perspectives. American Psychologist, 28, 358–360.

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  • Dorr, D., Cowen, E. L., & Sandler, I. N. (1973). Changes in non-professional mental health workers' response preference and attitudes as a function of training and supervised field experience. Journal of School Psychology, 11, 118–122.

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  • Sandler, I. N., Duricko, A., & Grande, L. (1975). Effectiveness of an early secondary preventive program in an inner-city elementary school. American Journal of Community Psychology, 3, 23–32.

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  • Sandler, I. N., Palmer, S., Holmen, M., & Wynkoop, R. (1975). Drinking characteristics of DWIs screened as problem drinkers. Alcohol Health and Research World, 1, 19–24.

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  • Goodstein, L. D., & Sandler, I. N. (1978). Using psychology to promote human welfare: A conceptual analysis of the role of community psychology. American Psychologist, 33, 882–892.

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  • Sandler, I. N., Holmen, M., & Schopper, A. (1978). Self-versus counselor perception of the interpersonal characteristics of female welfare recipients: A cross-cultural comparison. Journal of Community Psychology, 6, 179–188.

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  • Sandler, I. N., & Goodstein, L. D. (1979). Social planning and social action do involve psychological processes. American Psychologist, 34, 557–559.

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  • Goodstein, L. D., & Sandler, I. N. (1979). More on conceptualizing community psychology. American Psychologist, 34, 560–561.

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  • Sandler, I. N., & Block, M. (1979). Life stress and maladaptation of children. American Journal of Community Psychology, 7, 425–440.

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  • Sandler, I. N., Reich, J. W., & Doctolero, J. (1979). Utilization of college students to improve inner-city children's academic behavior. Journal of School Psychology, 17, 283–291.

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  • Harpin, P., & Sandler, I. N. (1979). Interaction of sex, locus of control and teacher control: Toward a student classroom match. American Journal of Community Psychology, 6, 621–632.

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  • Sandler, I. N. (1980). Social support resources, stress and maladjustment of poor children. American Journal of Community Psychology, 8, 41–52.

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  • Sandler, I. N., & Ramsay, T. B. (1980). Dimensional analysis of children's stressful life events. American Journal of Community Psychology, 8, 285–302.

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  • Sandler, I. N. (1980). Factors affecting parent ratings of teacher identified maladjusted inner-city children. American Journal of Community Psychology, 8, 687–695.

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  • Barrera, M., Sandler, I. N., & Ramsay, T. B. (1981). Preliminary development of a scale of social support: Studies on college students. American Journal of Community Psychology, 4, 435–449.

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  • Sandler, I. N., & Lakey, B. (1982). Locus of control as a stress moderator: The role of control perceptions and social support. American Journal of Community Psychology, 10, 65–80.

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  • Zautra, A. J., & Sandler, I. (1983). Life event needs assessments: Two models for measuring preventable mental health problems. Journal of Prevention in Human Services, 2, 35–58.

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  • Sandler, I. N., & Barrera, M. B., Jr. (1984). Toward a multi-method approach to assessing the effects of social support. American Journal of Community Psychology, 12, 37–52.

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  • Sandler, I., & Keller, P. A. (1984). Trends observed in community psychology program descriptions. American Journal of Community Psychology, 12, 157–165.

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  • Manne, S., & Sandler, I. N. (1984). Coping and adjustment to genital herpes. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 7, 391–410.

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  • Bachrach, J. M., & Sandler, I. N. (1985). A retrospective assessment of inhalant abuse in the Barrio: Implication for prevention. International Journal of the Addictions, 20, 1177–1189.

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  • Sandler, I. N. (1985). Children's environments and mental health: Opportunity and responsibility. American Journal of Community Psychology, 13, 335–339.

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  • Harpin, P., & Sandler, I. N. (1985). Relevance of social climate: An improved approach to assessing person × environment interactions in the classroom. American Journal of Community Psychology, 13, 339–353.

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  • Wolchik, S. A., Braver, S. L., & Sandler, I. N. (1985). Maternal versus joint custody: Children's post-separation experiences and adjustment. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 5–10.

  • Manne, S., Sandler, I. N., & Zautra, A. J. (1986). Coping and adjustment to genital herpes: The effects of time and social support. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 9, 164–179.

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  • Okun, M. A., Kardash, C. A., Stock, W. A., Sandler, I. N., & Bauman, D. J. (1986). Measuring perceptions of the quality of academic life among college students. Journal of College Student Personnel, 27, 447–452.

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  • Wolchik, S. A., Sandler, I. N., Braver, S. L., & Fogas, B. S. (1986). Events of parental divorce: Stressfulness ratings by children, parents and clinicians. American Journal of Community Psychology, 14, 59–75.

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  • Sandler, I. N. (1986). Children of parental divorce and parental death: The prospects for prevention program. Final Report of the National Mental Health Association Prevention Commission.

  • Roosa, M. W., Sandler, I. N., Beals, J., & Short, J. (1988). Risk status of adolescent children of problem-drinking parents. American Journal of Community Psychology, 16, 255–241.

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  • Okun, M., Sandler, I. N., & Baumann, D. J. (1988). Buffer and booster effects as event-support transactions. American Journal of Community Psychology, 16, 435–448.

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  • Roosa, M. W., Sandler, I. N., Gehring, M., Beals, J., & Cappo, L. (1988). The children of alcoholics life events schedule: A stress scale for children of alcohol abusing parents. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 49, 422–429.

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  • Braver, S. L., Gonzalez, N., Wolchik, S. A., & Sandler, I. N. (1989). Economic hardship and psychological distress in custodial mothers. Journal of Divorce, 24, 19–34.

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  • Wolchik, S. A., Ruehlman, J. S., Braver, S. L., & Sandler, I. N. (1990). Social support of children of divorce: Direct and stress buffering effects. American Journal of Community Psychology, 17, 485–501.

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  • Roosa, M. W., Beals, J., Sandler, I. N., & Pillow, D. R. (1990). The role of risk and protective factors in predicting symptomatology in adolescent self-identified children of alcoholic parents. American Journal of Community Psychology, 18, 725–741.

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  • West, S., Sandler, I. N., Baca, L., Pillow, D. R., & Gersten, J. (1991). The use of generative research in the design of a preventive intervention for bereaved children. American Journal of Community Psychology, 19, 459–481.

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  • Pillow, D. R., Sandler, I. N., Braver, S. L., Wolchik, S. A., & Gersten, J. C. (1991). Theory based screening for prevention: Focusing on mediating processes in children of divorce. American Journal of Community Psychology, 19, 809–836.

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  • Sandler, I. N., Braver, S. L., Wolchik, S. A., Pillow, D. R., & Gersten, J. C. (1991). Small theory and the strategic choices of prevention research. American Journal of Community Psychology, 19, 873–880.

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  • Sandler, I. N., Wolchik, S. A., Braver, S. L., & Fogas, B. S. (1991). Stability and quality of life events and psychological symptomatology in children of divorce. American Journal of Community Psychology, 19, 501–520.

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  • Braver, S. L., Wolchik, S. A., Sandler, I. N., Fogas, B. S., & Zvetina, D. (1991). Frequency of visitation by divorced fathers: Differences in reports by fathers and mothers. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 61, 448–454.

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  • Sandler, I. N., West, S. G., Baca, L., Pillow, D. R., Gersten, J. C., Rogosch, F., Virdin, L., Beals, J., Reynolds, K. D., Kallgren, C., Tein, J-Y., Kriege, G., Cole, E., & Ramirez, R. (1991). Linking empirically-based theory and evaluation: The Family Bereavement Program. American Journal of Community Psychology, 20, 491–521.

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  • Wolchik, S. A., Ramirez, R., Sandler, I. N., Fisher, J., Balls, P., & Brown, C. (1992). Inner-city poor children of divorce: Negative divorce-related events, problematic beliefs and adjustment problems. Journal of Divorce and Remarriage, 19, 1–20.

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  • Mazur, E., Wolchik, S. A., & Sandler, I. N. (1992). Negative cognitive errors and positive illusions for negative events: Predictors of children's psychological adjustment. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 20, 523–541.

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  • Sandler, I. N., Reynolds, K, Kliewer, W., & Ramirez, R. (1992). Specificity of relations between life events and psychological symptomatology. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 21, 240–249.

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  • Kliewer, W., & Sandler, I. N. (1992). Locus of control and self-esteem as moderators of stressor-symptom relations in children and adolescents. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 20, 393–413.

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  • Wolchik, S. A., West, S., Westover, S., Sandler, I. N., Martin A., Lustig, J., Tein, J.-Y., & Fisher, J. (1993). The children of divorce parenting project: Outcome evaluation of an empirically based parenting program. American Journal of Community Psychology, 21, 293–331.

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  • Sandler, I. N., & Chassin, L. (1993). From research to implementation in the teaching of prevention: A postdoctoral training program. Teaching of Psychology, 20, 144–149.

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  • Kliewer, W., & Sandler, I. N. (1993). Social competence and coping among children of divorce: Differing perspectives of children and their teachers. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 63, 432–440.

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  • Spaccarelli, S., Sandler, I. N., & Roosa, M. W. (1994). History of spouse violence against mother as mental health risk for children. Journal of Family Violence, 9, 79–98.

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  • Sandler, I. N. (1994). In search of proficiency in multicultural training in community psychology. American Journal of Community Psychology, 22, 803–807.

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  • Sandler, I. N., Tein, J.-.Y., & West, S. G. (1994). Coping, stress and the psychological symptoms of children of divorce: A cross-sectional and longitudinal study. Child Development, 65, 1744–1764.

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  • Miller, P. A., Kliewer, W., Hepworth, J. T., & Sandler I. N. (1994). Maternal socialization of children's postdivorce coping: Development of a measurement model. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 15, 457–487.

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  • Short, J. L., Roosa, M. W., Sandler, I. N., Gensheimer, L. K., Ayers, T. S., Shell, R., Braver, S. L., & Tein, J.-Y. (1995). Evaluation of a second generation preventive intervention for children of alcoholics. American Journal of Community Psychology, 23, 223–247.

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  • Sheets, V., Sandler, I. N., & West, S. G. (1996). Assessment of threat appraisals in children of divorce. Child Development, 67, 2166–2182.

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  • Pillow, D. R., Zautra, A. J., & Sandler, I. N. (1996). Major life events and minor stressors: Identifying mediational links in the stress process. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 70, 381–394.

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  • Lengua, L. J., & Sandler, I. N. (1996). Self-regulation as a moderator of the relation between coping and symptomatology in children of divorce. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 24, 681–701.

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  • Zautra, A., Sheets, V. L., & Sandler, I. N. (1996). An examination of the construct validity of coping dispositions for a sample of recently divorced mothers. Psychological Assessment, 8, 256–264.

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  • Ayers, T. S., Sandler, I. N., West, S. G., & Roosa, M. W. (1996). A dispositional and situational assessment of children's coping: Testing alternative models of coping. Journal of Personality, 64, 923–958.

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  • Short, J. L., Sandler, I. N., & Roosa, M. W. (1996). Adolescents' perceptions of social support: The role of esteem enhancing and esteem threatening relationships. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 15, 397–416.

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  • Dion, M. R., Braver, S. L., Wolchik, S. A., & Sandler, I. N. (1997). Noncustodial parents' alcohol abuse and psychopathic tendencies as predictors of child support and visitation. Journal of American Orthopsychiatry, 67, 70–79.

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  • Kim, L., Sandler, I. N., & Tein, J.-Y. ( 1997). An analysis of the dimensions of locus of control as a moderator and mediator of the effects of stress in children of divorce. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 25, 181–199.

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  • Dion, M. R., Braver, S. L., Wolchik, S. A. & Sandler, I. N. (1997). Noncustodial parents' alcohol abuse and psychopathic tendencies as predictors of child support and visitation frequency. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 67, 70–79.

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  • Weyer, M., & Sandler, I. N. (1998). Stress and coping as predictors of children's divorce-related ruminations. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 27, 78–87.

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  • Lengua, L., West, S. G., & Sandler, I. N. (1998). Temperament and symptomatology:Amethodology for assessing contamination of measures, Child Development, 69, 164–181.

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  • Lengua, L. J., Sandler, I. N., West, S. G., & Wolchik, S. (1999). Emotionality and self-regulation, threat appraisal and coping in children of divorce. Development and Psycholpathology, 11, 15–39.

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  • Sandler, I. (1999). Progress in developing strategies and theory for the prevention of depression and anxiety. Prevention and Treatment, 2 (Electronic publication of APA). http://www.apa.org/journals/preventio/author review/sandler.edit1.html

  • Tein, J.-Y., Sandler, I. N., & Zautra, A. J. (2000). Coping as a buffer of the effects of stress on parenting in children of divorce. Journal of Family Psychology, 14, 15–39.

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  • Sandler, I. N., Kim-Bahe, L., & MacKinnon, D. (2000). Coping and appraisal as mediators of the effects of locus of control beliefs on psychological symptoms for children of divorce. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 29, 336–347.

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  • Sandler, I., Tein, J.-Y., Mehta, P., Wolchik, S., & Ayers, T. (2000). Coping efficacy and psychological problems of children of divorce. Child Development, 71, 1097–1118.

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  1. Department of Psychology, Arizona State University, USA

    Irwin Sandler

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  1. Irwin Sandler
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Sandler, I. Quality and Ecology of Adversity as Common Mechanisms of Risk and Resilience. Am J Community Psychol 29, 19–61 (2001). https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1005237110505

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