Abstract
It is sometimes claimed that individuals' contributions topublic goods are not motivated by economic costs and benefitsalone, but that people also have a moral or norm-basedmotivation. A number of studies indicate that such moral ornorm-based motivation might be crowded out, or crowded in, bypublic policy. This paper discusses some models that can yieldinsight into the interplay between economic and moral ornorm-based motivation for voluntary contributions to publicgoods, and compares their policy implications. We distinguishbetween five types of models: Altruism models, social normmodels, fairness models, models of commitment and thecognitive evaluation theory.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Abrams, B.A. and Schmitz, M.A. (1978). The crowding out effect on government transfers on private charitable contributions. Public Choice 33: 29-39.
Abrams, B.A. and Schmitz, M.A. (1984). The crowding out effect on government transfers on private charitable contributions: Cross sectional evidence. National Tax Journal 37: 563-568.
Akerlof, G.A. (1980). A theory of social custom, of which unemployment may be one consequence. The Quarterly Journal of Economics June: 749-775.
Akerlof, G.A., and Kranton, R.E. (2000). Economics and identity. Quarterly Journal of Economics CXV: 715-753.
Andreoni, J. (1988). Privately provided public goods in a large economy: The limits of altruism. Journal of Public Economics 35: 57-73.
Andreoni, J. (1990). Impure altruism and donations to public goods: A theory of warm-glow giving. The Economic Journal 100: 464-477.
Andreoni, J. (1993). An experimental test of the public-goods crowding-out hypothesis.American Economic Review 83: 1317-1327.
Andreoni, J. and Petri, R. (2000). Social motives to giving: Can these explain fund raising institutions? Mimeo. Madison: University of Wisconsin.
Arrow, K.J. (1971). Political and economic evaluation of social effects and externalities. In: Intrilligator, M. (Ed.), Frontiers of quantitative economics. Amsterdam: North-Holland Publishing Company.
Auten, G.E., Sieg, H. and Clotfelter, C.T. (2002). Charitable giving, income, and taxes: An analysis of panel data. American Economic Review 92: 371-382.
Bergstrom, T., Blume, L. and Varian, H. (1986). On the private provision of public goods. Journal of Public Economics 29: 25-49.
Bernheim, B.D. (1986). On the voluntary and involuntary provision of public goods. American Economic Review 76: 787-793.
Binmore, K. (1998). Game theory and the social contract. Volume 2. Just playing. Series on Economic Learning and Social Evolution. Cambridge and London: MIT Press.
Blinder, A. and Choi, D. (1990). A shred of evidence on theories of wage stickiness. Quarterly Journal of Economics 105: 1003-1015.
Bohnet, I. and Frey, B. (1999). The sound of silence in prisoner's dilemma and dictator games. Journal of Economic Behavior and Organization 38: 43-57.
Bolton, G.E. and Katok, E. (1998). An experimental test of the crowding out hypothesis: The nature of beneficial behavior. Journal of Economic Behavior and Organization 37: 315-331.
Bolton, G.E. and Ockenfels, A. (2000). ERC:A theory of equity, reciprocity, and competition. American Economic Review 92: 166-193.
Brekke, K.A.,Kverndokk, S. and Nyborg, K. (2002). An economic model ofmoral motivation. Journal of Public Economics (forthcoming).
Brennan, G. and Pettit, P. (2000). The hidden economy of esteem. Economics and Philosophy 16: 77-98.
Charness, G. and Rabin, M. (2002). Understanding social preferences with simple tests. Quarterly Journal of Economics 117: 817-915.
Clotfelter, C.T. (1985). Federal tax policy and charitable giving. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Coleman, J. (1990). Foundations of social theory. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Deci, E.L., Koestner, R. and Ryan, R.M. (1998). Extrinsic rewards and intrinsic motivation: A clear and consistent picture after all. Mimeo. Department of Psychology, University of Rochester.
Deci, E.L. and Ryan, R.M. (1985). Intrinsic motivation and self-determination in human behavior. New York: Plenum Press.
Eisenberger, R. and Cameron, J. (1996). Detrimental effects on reward: Reality or myth? American Psychologist 51: 1153-1166.
Elster, J. (1989). The cement of society. A study of social order. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Falk, A. and Fischbacher, U. (2003). On the nature of fair behavior. Economic Inquiry, forthcoming.
Fehr, E, and Falk, A. (2002). Psychological foundations of incentives. European Economic Review 46: 687-724.
Fehr, E. and Gächter, S. (2001). Do incentive contracts crowd out voluntary cooperation? Discussion Paper No. 3017, Centre for Economic Policy Research, London.
Fehr, E. and Schmidt, K.M. (1999). A theory of fairness, competition, and cooperation. Quarterly Journal of Economics 114, 817-868.
Fox, J. and Guyer, M. (1978). Public choice and cooperation in n-person prisoner's dilemma. Journal of Conflict Resolution 22, 469-481.
Fischbacher, U., Gächter, S. and Fehr, E. (2001). Are people conditionally cooperative? Evidence from a public goods experiment. Economics Letters 71: 397-404.
Frey, B.S. (1992). Pricing and regulating affect environmental ethics. Environmental and Resource Economics 2: 399-414.
Frey, B.S. (1993). Motivation as a limit to pricing. Journal of Economic Psychology 14: 635- 664.
Frey, B.S. (1994). How intrinsic motivation is crowded out. Rationality and Society 6: 334- 352, reprinted in Casson (Ed.), Culture, social norms and economics, Volume I: Economic behaviour, 242-260. Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar Publishing.
Frey, B. S. (1997). Not just for the money An economic theory of personal motivation. Cheltenham, UK.: Edward Elgar.
Frey, B.S. (1999). Morality and rationality in environmental policy. Journal of Consumer Policy 22: 395-417.
Frey, B.S. and Goette, L. (1999). Does pay motivate volunteers? Working Paper Series no. 7,Institute of Empirical Research in Economics, University of Zürich.
Frey, B.S. and Jegen, R. (2001).Motivation crowding theory. Journal of Economic Surveys 15: 589-611.
Frey, B.S. and Oberholzer-Gee, F. (1997). The cost of price incentives: An empirical analysis of motivation crowding-out.American Economic Review 87: 746-755.
Gneezy, U. and Rustichini, A. (2000a). A fine is a price. The Journal of Legal Studies 29: 1-17.
Gneezy, U. and Rustichini, A. (2000b). Pay enough or don't pay at all. Quarterly Journal of Economics CXV: 791-810.
Gächter, S. and Fehr, A. (1999). Collective action as a social exchange. Journal of Economic Behavior and Organization 39: 341-369.
Hammond, P.J. (1987). Altruism. In Eatwell, J., Milgate, M. and Newman, P. (Eds.), The new palgrave. A dictionary of economics, 85-87. London: Macmillan Press Ltd.
Harsanyi, J.C. (1955). Cardinal welfare, individualistic ethics, and interpersonal comparison of utility. Journal of Political Economy 63: 309-321.
Holländer, H. (1990). A social exchange approach to voluntary cooperation. American Economic Review 80: 1157-1167.
Khanna, L, and Sandler, T. (2000). Partners in giving: The crowding-in effects of UK government grants. European Economic Review 44: 1543-1556.
Kingma, B.R. (1989). An accurate measurement of the crowd-out effect, income effect, and price effect for charitable contributions. Journal of Political Economy 97: 1197-1207.
Lindbeck, A. (1997). Incentives and social norms in household behavior. American Economic Review 87: 370-377.
Lindbeck, A., Nyberg, S. and Weibull, J. (1999). Social norms and economic incentives in the welfare state. The Quarterly Journal of Economics 1: 1-35.
Loewenstein, G. (2000). Emotions in economic theory and economic behavior. American Economic Review 90: 426-432.
Margolis, H. (1982). Selfishness, altruism, and rationality. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Mueller, D. (1987). The voting paradox. In: Rowly, C.K. (Ed.), Democracy and public choice: Essays in honor of Gordon Tullock. Oxford/New York: Basil Blackwell.
North, D. (1981). Structure and change in economic history. New York.
Nyborg, K. (1999). Informational aspect of environment policy deserves more attention: Comment on the paper by Frey. Journal of Consumer Policy 22: 419-427.
Nyborg, K. (2000). Homo Economicus and Homo Politicus: Interpretation and aggregation of environmental values. Journal of Economic Behavior and Organization 42: 305-322.
Ostrom, E. (1990). Governing the commons. The evolution of institutions for collective action. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Palfrey, T. and Prisbrey, J. (1997). Anomalous behavior in public goods experiments: How much and why? American Economic Review 87: 829-846.
Rabin, M. (1993). Incorporating fairness into game theory and economics.American Economic Review 83: 1281-1302.
Randolph, W.C. (1995). Dynamic income, progressive taxes, and the timing of charitable contributions.Journal of Political Economy 103: 709-738.
Reece, W.S. (1979). Charitable contributions: New evidence on household behavior. American Economic Review 69: 142-145.
Rege, M. (2000). Social norms and private provision of public goods. Journal of Public Economic Theory, forthcoming.
Rege, M. and Telle, K. (200l). An experimental investigation of social norms. Discussion Papers No. 310, Research Department, Oslo: Statistics Norway.
Ribar, D.C. and Wilhelm, M.O. (2002). Altruistic and joy-of-giving motivations in charitable behavior. Journal of Political Economy 110: 425-457.
Roberts, R.D. (1984). A positive model of private charity and public transfers. Journal of Political Economy 92: 136-148.
Schram, A. (2000). Sorting out the seeking: The economics of individual motivations. Public Choice 103: 231-258.
Sen, A.K. (1977). Rational fools: A critique of the behavioural foundations of economic theory. Philosophy and Public Affairs 6: 317-344.
Sugden, R. (1982). On the economics of philanthropy. The Economic Journal 92: 341-350.
Sugden, R. (1984). Reciprocity: The supply of public goods through voluntary contributions. The Economic Journal 94: 772-787.
Titmuss, R. (1970). The gift relationship: From human blood to social policy. London: George Allen and Unwin.
Ullmann-Margalit, E. (1977). The emergence of norms. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Warr, P.G. (1982). Pareto optimal redistribution and private charity. Journal of Public Economics 19: 131-138.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Nyborg, K., Rege, M. Does Public Policy Crowd Out Private Contributions to Public Goods. Public Choice 115, 397–418 (2003). https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1024245522958
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1024245522958