Abstract
Most multicellular organisms can be categorised by two words: hierarchy and composite. The underlying fractal geometry of nature — at least in terms of provision of infrastructure — provides much of the hierarchy, although many materials for which infrastructure is not an integral factor are also strongly hierarchical. Plants can therefore be modelled using recursive computer programs which add structures as the size increases. However, problems with mechanical stability also increase as the structure grows, so the plant changes from deriving stiffness from internal pressure to cross-linking the cell wall components permanently. However, this compromises the ability of the plant to grow and repair itself.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Mandelbrot B B. Fractals: Form, Chance and Dimension. W H Freeman and Co., San Francisco, California, 1977.
Mandelbrot B B. The Fractal Geometry of Nature. W H Freeman and Co., New York, 1983.
West G B, Brown J H, Enquist B J. A general model for the origin of allometric scaling laws in biology. Science, 1997, 276, 122–126.
West G B, Brown J H. The origin of allometric scaling laws in biology from genomes to ecosystems: Towards a quantitative unifying theory of biological structure and organization. Journal of Experimental Biology, 2005, 208, 1575–1592.
McMahon T A, Kronauer R E. Tree structures: Deducing the principle of mechanical design. Journal of Theoretical Biology, 1976, 59, 443–466.
Mattheck C. Engineering Components Grow Like Trees. Kernforschungscentrum, Karlsruhe, 1989.
Hepworth D G, Vincent J F V. The growth response of the stems of genetically modified tobacco plants (Nicotiana tabacum ‘Samsun’) to flexural stimulation. Annals of Botany, 1999, 83, 39–43.
Greenhill A C. Determination of the greatest height consistent with stability that a vertical pole or mast can be made, and of the greatest height to which a tree of given proportions may grow. Proceeding of the Cambridge Philosophical Society, 1881, 4, 65–73.
Prusinkiewicz P, Lindenmayer, A. The Algorithmic Beauty of Plants. Springer-Verlag, New York, 1996.
Neumann J v. Theory of Self-reproducing Automata. University of Illinois Press, Urbana, 1966.
Koch H v. Une methode geometrique elementaire pour l’etude de certaines questions de la theorie des courbes planes. Acta Mathematica, 1905, 30, 145–174.
Lakes R S. Materials with structural hierarchy. Nature, 1993, 361, 511–515.
Tirrell D A. Hierarchical Structures in Biology as a Guide for New Materials Technology. National Academy Press, Washington DC, 1994.
Gibson L J, Ashby M F, Karam G N, Wegst U G K, Shercliff H R. The mechanical properties of natural materials. II. Microstructures for mechanical efficiency. Proceedings of the Royal Society A, 1995, 450, 141–162.
Wegst U G K. The Mechanical Performance of Natural Materials. PhD thesis. University of Cambridge, UK, 1996.
Aspden R M. The theory of fibre-reinforced composite materials applied to changes in the mechanical properties of the cervix during pregnancy. Journal of Theoretical Biology, 1988, 130, 213–221.
Purslow P P, Bigi A, Ripamonte A, Roveri N. Collagen fibre reorientation around a crack in biaxially stretched aortic media. International Journal of Biological Macromolecules, 1984, 6, 21–25.
Broom N D. Further insights into the structural principles governing the function of articular cartilage. Journal of Anatomy, 1984, 139, 275–294.
Vincent J F V, Jeronimidis G, Topping B H V, Khan A. Biomimetics of flexible composites: Towards the development of new materials. Biomimetics, 1992, 4, 251–263.
Fischer K, Schopfer P. Interaction of auxin, light and mechanical stress in orientating microtubules in relation to tropic curvature in the epidermis of maize coleoptiles. Protoplasma, 1997, 196, 108–116.
Zandomeni K, Schopfer P. Reorientation of microtubules at the outer epidermal wall of maize coleoptiles by phytochrome, blue-light photoreceptor, and auxin. Protoplasma, 1993, 173, 103–112.
Hepworth D G, Vincent J F V. Modelling the mechanical properties of xylem tissue from tobacco plants (Nicotiana tabacum cv. samsun) by considering the importance of micro and molecular mechanisms. Annals of Botany, 1998, 81, 761–770.
Preston R D. The Physical Biology of Plant Cell Walls. Chapman & Hall, London, 1974.
Brett C T, Waldron K W. Physiology and Biochemistry of Plant Cell Walls. Chapman & Hall, London, 1996.
Vincent J F V, Jeronimidis G. Mechanical design of fossil plants. Biomechanics in Palaeontology, ed. J M V Rayner & R M Wootton. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1992.
Kull U, Herbig A, Otto F. Construction and economy of plant stems as revealed by use of the bic-method. Annals of Botany, 1992, 69, 327–334.
Kollmann F F P, Cote W A J. Principles of Wood Science and Technology. Springer-Verlag, New York, 1968.
Cowdrey D R, Preston R D. Elasticity and microfibrillar angle in xylem tissue of Sitka spruce. Proceedings of the Royal Society B, 1966, 166, 245–271.
Gordon J E, Jeronimidis, G. Composites with high work of fracture. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A, 1980, 294, 545–550.
Hush J M, Hawes C R, Overall R L. Interphase microtubule re-orientation predicts a new cell polarity in wounded pea roots. Journal of Cell Science, 1990, 96, 47–61l.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Vincent, J.F.V. Making a mechanical organism. J Bionic Eng 3, 43–58 (2006). https://doi.org/10.1016/S1672-6529(06)60006-1
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S1672-6529(06)60006-1