1 Introduction

The Practicum and its contribution to initial teacher education have long constituted a focal point of scholarly interest, engaging researchers, in-service educators, and academics alike (Christoforidou & Kyriakides, 2021; Lawson et al., 2015). Central to this sustained interest is the unique opportunity afforded by the Practicum for prospective teachers to translate university-based learning into the complex realities of educational practice. From this perspective, the Practicum plays a pivotal role, both in the Bachelor’s Degree in Primary Education and in the Bachelor’s Degree in Early Childhood Education, where it is conceived as a key space for professional socialisation and competence development (Cretu, 2021; Eliyawati et al., 2023; Prieto-Prieto et al., 2024; Reiban et al., 2024).

Competence, in this context, is widely recognised as a complex and context-dependent construct that emerges from the integrated mobilisation of knowledge, skills, and professional attitudes within authentic teaching situations. Rather than constituting a fragmented set of isolated elements, teacher competence is expressed through coherent patterns of action embedded in social and educational practices, making its development inseparable from the specific contexts in which it is enacted (Christoforidou & Kyriakides, 2021; Korthagen, 2016; Senhadji & Benbouziane, 2022). From this perspective, the Practicum represents a critical space for competence development in initial teacher education, as it enables prospective teachers to operationalise theoretical knowledge, pedagogical skills, and professional values in real classroom settings (Andreucci-Annunziata & Morales-Cabello, 2020; Rasheed, 2025; Zakaria et al., 2024).

Within this framework, professional performance is understood as the situated and observable enactment of teacher competences during the Practicum (Rusznyak & Österling, 2024). Performance reflects how pre-service teachers mobilise and integrate their knowledge, skills, and attitudes when responding to concrete classroom demands, institutional conditions, and interactions with students and other educational actors (Prieto-Prieto et al., 2024). Consequently, performance does not constitute a separate construct from competence, but rather its contextual expression in practice, shaped by the specific conditions of the educational environment (Jenssen & Haara, 2024; Stenberg & Maaranen, 2022).

The significance of the Practicum, however, transcends purely pedagogical considerations and is firmly rooted in regulatory frameworks. In both the European and Spanish contexts, the European Convergence process—culminating in the European Higher Education Area—precipitated substantive reforms in curricula and pedagogical methodologies (Bergsmann et al., 2015). These reforms prioritised student-centred pedagogies designed to promote active engagement, application of knowledge, and the systematic development of competences (Ograjšek & Ivanuš-Grmek, 2024). In Spain, regulatory developments have further consolidated the Practicum’s role as a vehicle for promoting competence development, resulting in an expansion of time dedicated to practical training within teacher education programmes (Martín-Romera et al., 2022; Paredes-Labra et al., 2016). Indeed, Royal Decree, 1393/2007 of 29 October, governing the organisation of official university education, establishes that the Practicum constitutes 25% of Primary Education teacher training curricula (Badía & Clarke, 2021).

A competence-based perspective offers valuable analytical insight into the processes that support professional growth during the Practicum, while also highlighting pathways for enhancing teaching and learning (Christoforidou & Kyriakides, 2021). The competence-based training model aspires fundamentally to bridge the divide between theoretical constructs and practical application (Flores-Lueg, 2022). Nevertheless, as documented in a substantial body of research (Hagenauer et al., 2021; Korthagen, 2016; Yan & He, 2020; Zapatero-Ayuso et al., 2021), this focus on application frequently often highlights the persistent dichotomy between universities as places of theoretical debate and schools as areas of practical engagement.

Despite notable progress towards integrated and reflective-critical models of the Practicum (Samacá, 2021)—approaches regarded as essential for competence development (Matengu et al., 2021) and for bridging institutional divides (Flores-Lueg, 2022)—considerable research (e.g., Korthagen, 2016; Sánchez et al., 2024; Sarceda-Gorgoso & Rodicio-García, 2018; Yan & He, 2020; Zapatero-Ayuso et al., 2021) continues to document a persistent gap between the theoretical and practical dimensions of teacher education. This disconnect constrains the acquisition of specific competences among pre-service teachers and hampers their capacity to respond effectively to the challenges encountered during the Practicum (Matengu et al., 2021). Therefore, there is an urgent need to further investigate the challenges and perceived barriers associated with competence development during the Practicum, to inform specific strategies to strengthen initial teacher training in both university and school contexts. This means that teaching practices continue to face challenging and ongoing issues, such as the division of mentoring responsibilities, the tension between theory and practice, and the lack of collaboration between universities and schools, which impacts how future teachers develop their professional identity and ability to perform their job (Heinz, 2024).

In a comprehensive review, Lawson et al. (2015) identified two dominant themes in research on the Practicum: shifts in professional competences and evolving beliefs concerning effective pedagogical practice. Broadly, the literature agrees on the substantial value of the Practicum for the development of essential competences within initial teacher education, including competences related to instructional methodology (e.g., classroom management, lesson planning, deployment of diverse teaching approaches), familiarity with school culture, emotional regulation, and the establishment of effective relationships with students. Such practical experiences have been shown to enhance pre-service teachers' perceived competence and self-efficacy (Costa-Filho & Iaochite, 2015; Ismail et al., 2024; Reiban et al., 2024; Yan & He, 2020). Recent findings suggest that, although long-term teaching practice leads to notable improvements in self-perceived competence and self-efficacy among teachers, improvements in objective pedagogical knowledge are limited unless complemented by ongoing seminars throughout the practice period (Bauer et al., 2024). Nonetheless, other studies have identified persistent deficiencies in training, particularly regarding the capacity to individualise resources and to adapt methodological strategies to specific school contexts (Reiban et al., 2024). Drawing on this body of research, and in line with studies that have identified classroom management, attention to diversity and inclusive practices, and the use of teaching resources and methodologies as key areas of professional development during the Practicum (Cretu, 2021; Lawson et al., 2015; Prieto-Prieto et al., 2024), the present study focuses on these three core areas of teacher professional competences.

The effectiveness of the Practicum is influenced by multiple factors. It is increasingly conceptualised as a collaborative process situated within shared professional spaces and shaped by the interaction of diverse stakeholders, including student teachers, university supervisors, school mentors, school leaders, and others (Marek et al., 2024). Consistent with this view, several scholarly reviews emphasise the necessity of examining the Practicum through the lens of all its participants (Lawson et al., 2015; Matengu et al., 2021). Consequently, the Practicum should be understood as a social, cultural, and historical arena shaped by the interactions among students, educators, and institutional leaders within the contexts in which it takes place.

These interactions are deeply shaped by the beliefs, values, and perspectives of all participants. Based on the knowledge acquired in previous systematic reviews and current studies in this field, this study aims to examine the cultural context of the Practicum in relation to the preparation of Early Childhood Education (ECE, ages 3–6) and Primary Education (PE, ages 6–12) teachers at a specific institution (University of Castilla-La Mancha, UCLM), with particular attention to the opinions and perceptions of key stakeholders. The main objective is to conduct an in-depth analysis of the concerns and support structures associated with the performance and competence development of ECE and PE students’ skills during the Practicum within this institutional context. More specifically and in depth, the research questions that guide the methodological design and the data analysis, and that orient the generation of results, are as follows:

  • RQ1. What are the main areas of concern perceived by ECE and PE pre-service teachers and other key stakeholders regarding competence development during the Practicum?

  • RQ2. How do pre-service teachers develop professional competences related to classroom management, attention to diversity, and the use of resources and teaching methodologies during the Practicum?

  • RQ3. What forms of support and guidance are perceived as most relevant by students, graduates, and school mentors in fostering competence development during the Practicum?

2 Methodology

This study employed a qualitative and interpretative research design to facilitate an in-depth exploration of the experiences and perceptions of those involved in the Practicum. Such an approach recognises the value of multiple perspectives situated within the specific context of teacher education placements (Devetak et al., 2010). The research is best characterised as a case study focused on the Practicum conducted at University of Castilla-La Mancha (UCLM) located in Albacete, Spain.

2.1 Context and participants

The Practicum within the Early Childhood Education (ECE) and Primary Education (PE) teaching degrees at the institution under study is organised into two distinct periods: one in pre-primary and the other in primary school settings.

The initial placement, designated as Practicum I, occurs during the third academic year and spans four months between September and December. During this period, student teachers rotate across all grade levels of the assigned educational stage while remaining primarily attached to a specific classroom. Their responsibilities include observing and documenting the organisational structure of both the school and the classroom, designing and implementing educational activities, evaluating their impact, collaborating on strategies for addressing diversity, and participating in meetings with school mentors and peers.

The second placement, Practicum II, takes place from January to April in the fourth academic year. In this phase, student teachers are required to plan and deliver an entire didactic unit aligned with the broader teaching programme and tailored to the specific group of students assigned. They also assess learning outcomes, collaborate with school mentors on curriculum planning, instructional delivery, and evaluation, and engage in tutoring activities involving students and families under the supervision of their mentors.

Throughout both Practicum periods, each student teacher is assigned a school mentor (in either ECE or PE school) and a university supervisor. These supervisors jointly observe and evaluate the student teacher’s performance and assess the Practicum report submitted at the end of each placement. The report is reviewed collaboratively by both the school mentor and the university supervisor. According to Dreer-Goethe (2025), the involvement of mentors has a significant impact on the Practicum of pre-service teachers, as mentors are often central figures who can support or limit their independence, their access to teaching tools, and their opportunities for research, reflection, and skill development. For this study, data were gathered from multiple perspectives through triangulation of both data sources and collection methods. A total of 95 participants were selected to ensure diverse insights into the ECE (3–6 years) and PE (6–12 years) Practicum programmes. Participants were purposefully selected to ensure maximum variation in perspectives, roles, and levels of involvement in the Practicum (Barbour, 2007). The sample included:

  • Student teachers from the ECE and PE teaching degrees across the 2nd, 3rd, and 4th academic years;

  • Graduates of the ECE and PE teaching degrees, including both practising teachers and those not yet active in the profession;

  • University supervisors responsible for guiding and assessing student teachers during the Practicum;

  • School mentors teaching across different educational stages (ECE and PE), diverse subjects (e.g. Foreign Language, Physical Education), and with varying professional experience (from under three years to over fifteen years);

  • Head teachers from ECE and PE schools hosting student teachers;

  • The Practicum Coordinator and Vice-Dean at the institution;

  • The Provincial Delegate for Practicum from the Education Administration;

  • Education Inspectors specialising in ECE and PE.

Table 1 summarises the distribution of these participants across the different qualitative data collection techniques, showing the number of individuals from each profile involved in interviews, life stories, practice diaries, and discussion groups.

Table 1 Participant profiles and distribution across qualitative data collection techniques
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This study employed a purposive sampling strategy aimed at capturing diverse perspectives within a well-defined teacher education context. The participants were drawn exclusively from the Faculty of Education at the UCLM, which serves as a regional hub for training ECE and PE teachers. This institution was selected due to its comprehensive and structured Practicum programme, which closely mirrors the national standards for teacher education in Spain, thereby enhancing the transferability and relevance of the findings. While the study is based on a single institution, its scientific relevance lies in the depth and richness of the qualitative data, as well as in the representative structure of the Practicum at UCLM, which is aligned with broader national practices in Spain and comparable systems across Europe and Latin America. This alignment enhances the analytical generalizability (Yin, 2014) and reproducibility of the research design in similar teacher education contexts.

2.2 Instruments

The research design was based on the triangulation of qualitative techniques to ensure a comprehensive and rigorous understanding of the case. The selection of these qualitative instruments is grounded in a conceptualisation of teacher competence as a complex, situated, and multidimensional construct, expressed through the integrated mobilisation of knowledge, skills, and attitudes in real educational contexts (Christoforidou & Kyriakides, 2021; Korthagen, 2016). Multiple narrative methods were employed for data collection, including 33 interviews, 5 focus groups, 22 life stories, and 7 Practicum diaries or memoirs.

Both the interviews and focus groups were semi-structured, designed according to established methodological guidelines (Barbour, 2007; Flick, 2018). Pre-developed interview guides ensured alignment with the research objectives. Broad questions addressed general perceptions of the Practicum and its role in initial teacher education (e.g., ‘What did you learn during your placement?’ or ‘Did you design and implement your own activities during this period?’). More specific questions about available resources and contextual factors (e.g., ‘Were you provided with adequate materials and resources during the placement?’). The use of consistent interview guides contributed to the triangulation and comparability of the data collected.

Life stories were employed to capture autobiographical narratives or focused micro-stories reflecting participants’ beliefs and interpretations of their experiences within their educational contexts (Flores, 2020; Prat & Camacho-Miñano, 2018). This method empowers participants to articulate their perspectives and construct personal narratives of their lived experiences (Smith, 2011). Participants were specifically encouraged to reflect on their university years, providing detailed accounts of their experiences and the impact of practical training components.

Practicum diaries or memoirs were treated as focused life stories documenting participants’ reflections during their internship period. These are effective in capturing the beliefs, emotions, and professional development trajectories of student teachers engaged in the Practicum in Spain (Fontao et al., 2024; Zapatero-Ayuso et al., 2021).

The combined use of interviews, focus groups, life stories, and practicum diaries enabled access to multiple facets of competence development and professional performance, as perceived and experienced by different actors involved in the Practicum. While all these techniques contribute in a complementary manner to understanding the phenomenon under study, each instrument allowed for an in-depth exploration of specific dimensions of teacher competence. Semi-structured interviews and focus groups facilitated the examination of competence development and professional performance from the perspectives of multiple educational stakeholders, making it possible to identify shared concerns, perceived supports, and meanings attributed to the Practicum experience. Life stories provided access to less visible dimensions of competence, such as professional values, attitudes, and the construction of teacher identity over time (Flores, 2020). Finally, practicum diaries or memoirs captured situated performance and reflection in and on action, documenting how pre-service teachers mobilised their competences when responding to real classroom demands during their Practicum experience.

2.3 Procedure

For this study, a total of 33 interviews, 22 life stories, 7 Practicum diaries, and 5 focus groups were conducted. Informed consent was obtained from all participants before data collection. Data collection was conducted between October 2022 and April 2023. The focus groups consisted of between 5 and 11 participants. Interviews and focus groups were conducted in designated classrooms at the university or locations agreed upon with participants and were moderated by members of the research team.

All sessions were video-recorded and subsequently transcribed, preserving both verbal and non-verbal data to ensure a rich dataset. Individual interviews lasted approximately one hour, while focus groups ranged from one to one and a half hours. Life stories were collected in direct collaboration with researchers to help participants structure their narratives.

2.4 Data analysis

Data analysis was conducted using ATLAS.ti software following a deductive yet iterative and data-informed approach. After an initial in-depth reading of the narratives, a preliminary coding framework was collaboratively developed by two experienced researchers. This framework was progressively refined through an iterative process involving constant comparison, discussion, and consensus-building among multiple analysts. All researchers involved in the coding process received prior training in the application of the coding framework. The analysis was coordinated by a lead researcher with extensive expertise in qualitative methodology.

To ensure the rigor and quality of the research, several strategies were implemented. Multiple analysts independently reviewed and coded the data, and regular meetings were held to discuss discrepancies, refine category definitions, and ensure consistency in the interpretation of the narratives. This process enabled the comparison of perspectives and contributed to the progressive consolidation of the coding system.

Categories and subcategories were clearly defined and supported by illustrative examples from the data, enhancing the trustworthiness of the findings. While the coding system was developed through close engagement with the empirical material, its final organisation was informed by previous research on teaching practicum and teacher professional competence development. In this sense, the analytical framework was structured around three core areas of teacher professional competence—classroom management, attention to diversity and inclusive practices, and the design and implementation of teaching resources and methodologies—which provided an interpretative lens for organising and discussing the findings (Cretu, 2021; Lawson et al., 2015; Prieto-Prieto et al., 2024). Table 2 presents a summary of the main categories and subcategories resulting from this analytical process.

Table 2 Summary of the categorical system used for coding
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2.5 Ethical considerations

The study followed ethical standards. All participants provided informed assent, and their participation was voluntary, with the option to withdraw at any time. To ensure confidentiality and impartiality, the analysts were not previously acquainted with the participants, and all data were anonymized. Information was handled and reported in a way that preserved participants’ anonymity and safeguarded sensitive information throughout the study, ensuring that the analysis was conducted without any knowledge of individual identities.

3 Results

The data analysis identified three areas of concern and competence development for the participants: (1) classroom management and control; (2) attention to diversity; and (3) resources and teaching methodology.

3.1 Classroom management and control during the practicum

For the participants, managing the classroom environment and resolving conflicts were significant concerns during the Practicum, as evidenced by the following quotations:

‘During my first Practicum there weren’t any conflicts — it was a nice group. But when I got to the fourth year, I saw that the sixth-year kids were much more disruptive. They would just leave me alone in the classroom, so I had to figure things out on my own. At first, I had no idea how to deal with these problems — the only thing I knew was to send them out of the class, but no one had ever taught me how to handle that.’ (4th-year undergraduate student in the Bachelor’s Degree in ECE, Life Story 1, CA/CA-DFCA).

‘…at the beginning I was struggling, because it was my first Practicum… and I didn’t know how to handle this kind of behaviour, because my way of dealing with it was just to stay quiet. When a kid teased me or talked back, I had no idea how to respond.’ (Graduate PE Teacher, Interview 33, CC/CC-DFCC).

Furthermore, the incorporation of educational programmes focusing on the regulation and supervision of the classroom environment was advocated:

‘I feel there should be a subject on classroom management. I think it’s super important. Techniques for managing the classroom, for those moments when a class or all the students are overloaded with work…’ (Graduate PE Teacher, Interview 33, CC/LCC).

One of the difficulties encountered by those undertaking initial teacher training regarding classroom control was the perceived authority of schoolchildren. This is evidenced by the following quotation:

‘Very often, the practicum student isn’t seen as an authority figure. They’re usually more like a peer…’ (Student in the Degree in PE, Focus Group 3, CC/ATS).

In response to these challenges, teachers in initial teacher training indicated that they used different strategies, including grouping students according to affinity:

‘I used the opportunity to pair up students who were doing well with others who were kind of struggling […]. I tried to mix the groups in different ways, but I always made sure there was some affinity between the students… when they got along, the group work turned out much better.’ (PE Teacher, Interview 14, CC/G).

Another strategy employed by trainee teachers to perform competently was communication:

‘Communication is really important, and it’s also key to have a good classroom management system that everyone understands through communication, obviously, and to have tools to manage things…’ (Graduate PE Teacher, Interview 33, CC/CC-CKS).

It is also noteworthy that some graduates identified the significance of the school context in maintaining an optimal classroom environment, which is a crucial factor influencing student performance:

‘School X is in a neighbourhood that’s a bit rough and quite challenging, so I think the context really shapes educational actions […]. The context required me to teach them something useful, like respecting their classmates or resolving conflicts.’ (Graduate PE Teacher, Focus Group 5, CC/CC-CC/CC-CONTEX/CC-DFCC).

However, the school mentors considered classroom control and climate to be one of the principal areas of competence development for future teachers during the work experience. The experience, accompanied by observation and guidance from the school mentor at the educational centre, constituted the main support for such progress:

‘That's probably what they learn the most’ (PE teacher and headteacher, Focus Group 4, CA/CA-ACA).

‘Apart from observing, you also learn by asking your mentor whether this is well done… if this is badly done… how you can improve it so that next time you can do it better and avoid mistakes.’ (Student of the Degree in ECE, Focus Group 4, CA/CA-ACA/CA-RTAP).

3.2 Attention to diversity and individualisation of teaching during the Practicum

This category was identified as a significant concern by the participants. Some students indicated that the Practicum did not provide opportunities for teaching practice, while acknowledging the value of such experiences:

‘Regarding attention to diversity, honestly, in my case, well… it wasn’t a topic we addressed during the Practicum, and it would have been good, to be honest. […] Getting training in the psycho-pedagogical aspects of pupils is vitally important to understand each pupil’s situation.’ (Student of the Bachelor’s Degree in PE, Life Story 10, ATD-NOEXIATD/ATD-IMP).

However, this was not the typical perspective on the development of this Practicum, as a general view was found among both the students on placement and the graduated students and school mentors, who recognised that the Practicum provided them with meaningful learning opportunities and enabled them to offer a high-quality educational response to diversity and to perform competently.

In this way, the trainee teachers highlighted what they had learned through observing the most effective measures that their school mentors had implemented to individualise teaching. These findings are supported by the following quotes:

‘I have two kids with Down syndrome and a girl who is autistic, and when I got there, I didn’t know how to work with them. So I’ve been lucky that my teacher, my mentor, helped me, guided me, and explained how to relate to them and how to work with them.’ (Student of the Bachelor’s Degree in PE, Focus Group 2, ATD-PRAD/ATD-AITAD).

‘There was a student with high abilities. The mentor had complementary activities for them, agreed upon with the school’s counsellor.’ (4th-year student of the Bachelor’s Degree in PE, Life Story 5, ATD-EXIATD/ATD-AIATD).

In addition to underscoring the array of educational resources acquired to address individual differences, the participants underscored certain strategies to facilitate the development of competences in prospective teachers. Among these, the following were particularly noted: the continuous and clear communication from the mentor about the characteristics of the students; the guidance and observation provided by the school counsellor and other teaching staff; and the involvement of trainee teachers in establishing collaborative relationships with families.

One of the strategies identified was communication with their school mentors to inform them of the particularities of the children to enable individualised teaching, adapted to the specific diversity of the classroom:

‘Yes, that’s right. On the first day, they told me ‘this child is more unruly’ or ‘he other one struggles more with maths, you can help them’, all of this while I was there.’ (4th-year student of the Bachelor’s Degree in ECE, Life Story 1, ATD-AIATD/ATD-MRATD).

‘[She] considers it important to maintain a good climate of communication to understand her students’ situations and their needs. If this relationship does not exist, it can negatively affect the relationship with the students, as the difficulties they might have may go unattended.’ (PE Teacher, Life Story 2, ATD-AIATD/ATD-MRATD).

Concerning the counsellor, it was observed that this professional's input proved instrumental in the resolution of challenging situations encountered by the trainee students:

‘She was a bit less experienced in the areas of pedagogy, psychology, and everything more related to tutoring—not just the teaching side—and that inspired me to, in the future, prepare my tutorials well and take an interest in the role of the school counsellor.’ (Graduate in PE and Master's student, Interview 14, ATD-PRAD/ATD-LIATD/ATD-RTTS).

Similarly, the guidance provided by the teaching staff at the educational establishment where the Practicum was undertaken was pivotal in addressing individual differences:

‘Any doubt I had, I’d either ask the mentor or tell the special education teacher… Plus, I was never alone with him; I always had one of the other two teachers next to me.’ (Recently graduated PE teacher, Interview 32, ATD-PRAD/ATD-RTTS).

In terms of the involvement of teachers and families, there was an acknowledgement of the effective coordination between the teaching staff and families to provide a high-quality response, as well as the involvement of trainee teachers in these exchanges. The inclusion of trainee teachers constituted valuable support to their competency development:

‘As a trainee, I couldn’t intervene directly with the families because I was acting as an observer, but I did identify the needs and the extra attention given, especially to students with special educational needs, since these children require personal monitoring and an individual work plan. And with these particular families, I did have more contact, especially during the tutorials…’ (Student in PE, Interview 24, ATD-MRATD).

‘…the respective tutors, like the special education teacher, and the families had constant contact through the communication book, and the work they did with these students was well organised and structured.’ (Recently graduated PE teacher and Master’s student, Life Story 21, ATD-MRATD).

Despite the significant progress made in developing this competency, expressions of challenges in its development were also prevalent. These perceptions were articulated by both the trainee teachers and the school mentors.

‘We’re just one person, and you’ve got 25 children, and there are kids with complexities, right? And you’re thinking: how do I handle this? It’s very difficult, really difficult.’ (ECE Teacher, Focus Group 3, ATD-PRAD/ATD-LIATD).

Concerning this domain, both trainee students and active teachers have identified several challenges that may impede the training process of the Practicum. These include negative emotions, the inherent complexity and diversity of the students, and a lack of training. Concerning emotions, negative feelings and emotions have been reported, which may hinder the educational response to the different characteristics of the students:

‘I gained the necessary experience through day-to-day practice, attending to the students’ needs and following the protocol for working with families. He confessed that, at first, he felt somewhat uncomfortable in meetings with parents and families, and that sometimes he was overcome by a feeling of insecurity that, in a way, tormented him, because he wanted to appear and convey confidence and assurance. However, sometimes it’s difficult because of a mix of emotions that could feel overwhelming and difficult to manage’ (ECE Teacher, Life Story 15, ATD-PRAD/ATD-LIATD/ATD-EXIATD).

Concerning the second aspect, the participants identified two further difficulties in providing individualised attention. These were attributed either to the complexity of the students' demands or to the contextual challenges of the situation. In connection with these results, the following quote is presented:

‘[There is] a 4th-grade student who has a significant learning gap. He’s been moved up year after year, but he can barely read. During my Practicum, whenever my mentor goes to that class, they leave me with him, and I try to help, but it’s a bit frustrating… He doesn’t pay attention to me and is far behind.’ (3rd-year student in the Bachelor’s Degree in PE, Interview 3, ATD-PRAD).

Concerning training, the students emphasised the lack of adequate preparation to meet the diverse educational requirements of the student body, underscoring the necessity for more comprehensive training in these domains:

‘The teacher does guide me, but, for example, about what you said regarding psychology, they’ve given me the theory, but then I go into class and I’ve got two boys with Down syndrome and a girl who’s autistic, and I get there and I don’t know how to work with them.’ (PE Student, Focus Group 2, ATD-PRAD).

These training difficulties were not only evident among the student cohort but also among graduates and active school mentors, who identified university training as a pivotal factor in facilitating progress:

‘I know all the disorders that exist, but I don’t know how to work with any of them.’ (Graduate in PE, specialising in Therapeutic Pedagogy, Interview 33, ATD-PRAD).

‘During the degree and the two years of specialisation, they teach you how to work individually with the student, but not in an inclusive way. You learn how to support the student one-to-one, but you don’t learn how to work with them while including them in the classroom with the rest of their classmates.’ (PE Student, Life Story 19, ATD-PRAD).

3.3 The design and use of resources and methodologies during the Practicum

This category emerged as a significant contributor to the competency development of prospective teachers. Competences related to the design and implementation of resources and methodologies were identified as the areas where pre-service teachers demonstrated the most notable progress during the Practicum. One of the most noteworthy contributions by trainee and graduate students was the creation of resources and the application of diverse methodological techniques during the Practicum. Many of them stated that they implemented diverse and innovative actions during this period:

‘During my Practicum, I combined traditional methodologies with new, innovative ones. So, I tried to use what they were used to along with what I wanted to try out myself, so it wouldn’t be such a drastic change. For example, we played games with flashcards, finding pairs on the computer — I mean, on the digital board — and that way they learned how to use the digital board, to touch it and all that. And then, at the end of the topic, they did an escape room using the digital board as a tool.’ (PE Student, Interview 15, METH-SST/METH-PBL/METH-INN).

Nevertheless, despite the aforementioned contributions, future teachers also perceived progress in adapting the materials to the classroom context, as evidenced by the following quotation:

‘This led to preparing “backup” activities in case there was extra time, or if any setback stopped the initial activity from going ahead. She learned to be more efficient at school by preparing materials, reusing them, getting more out of them, and also managing the time required for each activity.’ (Graduate in PE, Life Story 22, METH-LRM).

As reported by the trainee students, the development of competences occurred in an interrelated process of adapting the resources and techniques applied by the school mentors and those proposed by the students. In this regard, a correlation was identified between the utilisation of more traditional resources and methodologies by the school mentors and the employment of somewhat more innovative resources and methodologies by the future teachers:

‘I’m with a creative teacher who uses loads of innovative materials, and you can tell because it motivates the kids a lot. For example, there’s this new material called ‘Poppy’. The kids don’t just use it to play, which is what they normally do, but also, for example, to count, add, and subtract.’ (3rd-year PE Student, Focus Group 5, METH-LRM/METH-INN/METH-PBL).

‘I tried to adapt a bit to the way the mentor taught, but at the same time, I brought in something a bit more innovative with ICT, so to speak.’ (Recently graduated PE Teacher, Interview 32, METH-LRM/METH-ICTs).

In this regard, the active teachers were positively inclined towards the reception of trainee students, viewing it as an opportunity for mutual learning. The teachers undergoing initial training were able to contribute to the schools where they completed their Practicum with knowledge of more innovative methodologies.

Active teachers also emphasised the importance of students learning more traditional strategies and resources, which have proven effective over time in schools, and highlighted the need to avoid discarding these simply because they are seen as traditional or associated with a negative connotation:

‘It’s all a process of exchange. You give them, maybe, innovative methodologies or… a helping hand, which never hurts, and they share with you all their experience’. So, in the end, it’s a process of feedback between the two…’. (Graduate in ECE and Master’s student, Focus Group 4, METH-LRM/METH-INN/METH-SST).

The findings indicated that this was one of the areas where future teachers demonstrated the most proficient performance, as evidenced by both the teaching staff and the trainee students. The students reported that they encountered minimal challenges when applying methodologies and designing and utilising resources:

‘…I didn’t come across any difficulties… the children responded well to the activities they did with the mentor and also to the ones I suggested’. (Recently graduated PE Teacher, Interview 32, METH-LRM).

Nevertheless, despite the students' self-perceived adequate competence, some teachers and education inspectors emphasised the need to adapt educational proposals to the mentor's teaching style and the classroom context to make them more realistic: …the need to adapt educational proposals to the mentor's teaching style and the classroom context…"ç.

‘But generally, the lessons that Practicum students prepare, at least the ones I’ve seen, tend to be more ambitious… and you think, forget it, forget about that because it’s just not realistic.’ (PE Teacher, Focus Group 5, METH-PRMETH).

‘…you’d always bring a kind of standard unit that you wanted to put into practice… that standard unit —well, let's see— you try to implement it, but then we’d look at what we can fit in here, what works, what doesn’t… and it gradually takes shape over the period.’ (Inspector of ECE and PE, Focus Group 4, METH-PRMETH).

4 Discussion

This study aimed to examine the concerns and sources of support associated with the performance and competence development of pre-service ECE and EP teachers during the Practicum, as perceived by those directly involved in the process. The findings indicate that classroom management—including aspects such as coexistence and the handling of disruptive behaviour—and the attention to individual differences emerged as the primary areas of concern related to competence development in the examined context. Notably, these domains of concern also constituted significant areas of professional growth for the participants, corroborating previous research which underscores the Practicum’s role in fostering competences related to recognising and addressing diversity and multiculturalism, as well as in managing classroom dynamics and climate (Álvarez-Arregui et al., 2008; Del Arco et al., 2021; Gairín-Sallán et al., 2019; Prieto-Prieto et al., 2024; Rif’attullah & Ciptaningrum, 2024; Rodríguez-Hidalgo et al., 2015; Yan & He, 2020).

In the domain of classroom management and control, the guidance and presence of school mentors, alongside the opportunity to observe their professional practices and the specific strategies they employ, were identified as essential facilitators of progress. These findings reinforce the conception of the school mentor as a figure of pedagogical authority within the institutional environment (Flores-Lueg, 2022). Furthermore, several classroom management strategies employed by pre-service teachers in both ECE and EP were documented. Mastery of, and training in, such strategies appear crucial for enhancing future teachers’ self-perceived competence during the Practicum, with particular emphasis placed on familiarity with, and adaptation to, the specific Practicum context, the use of affinity grouping, and effective communication with students.

Concerning addressing diversity and the individualisation of teaching, the findings revealed a significant gap in training related to managing scenarios typically encountered in educational practice. Both pre-service teachers and in-service teachers (school mentors) expressed the need for further professional preparation in this domain. Echoing the work of Costa Filho and Iaochite (2015) and Rodríguez et al. (2022), the study identified limited development of competences related to inclusive education during the Practicum, with participants reporting negative emotions such as discouragement when confronted with the complexities of inclusive educational practice. These results are consistent with those of Arnaiz et al. (2019), who highlighted insufficient training as a major obstacle to the effective implementation of inclusive education. Within the framework of this study, it becomes evident that the role of the school mentor in supporting pre-service teachers warrants further examination. Mentors must possess a professional profile characterised by the attitudes, attributes, and expertise required to foster inclusive educational practices and contribute meaningfully to the professional development of future teachers (Gurung & Kumar, 2023; Pandey & Sharma, 2022).

These findings underscore the critical importance of rigorously selecting, adequately preparing, and actively involving school mentors within the educational environment to enhance the training experience during the Practicum (Flores-Lueg, 2022; Martín-Romera et al., 2022; Yan & He, 2020). Furthermore, in alignment with the present study’s outcomes, the pivotal role of multidisciplinary teams responsible for guiding and supporting diversity during the Practicum is highlighted, underscoring the necessity of designing and implementing reflective and collaborative models within this context (Samacá, 2021). Additionally, this research emphasises the value of fostering communication between pre-service teachers and families and promoting fluid information exchange regarding students’ characteristics as effective strategies for learning during the Practicum.

However, it should be emphasised that, as with classroom management, there is still considerable concern about the integration of university curriculum content specifically dedicated to training in inclusive practices. However, concerning both domains—classroom management and the accommodation of individual differences—the findings suggest that, overall, the Practicum period significantly facilitated the acquisition and development of professional competences. In line with prior studies, participants expressed a heightened sense of professional growth and perceived improvements in competence and self-efficacy (Ismail et al., 2024; Costa Filho & Iaochite, 2015; Rodríguez et al., 2022). These findings highlight the fundamental role of the Practicum in teacher education curricula, affirming its function as a crucial formative component capable of addressing potential deficiencies in training (Andreucci-Annunziata & Morales-Cabello, 2020; Rasheed, 2025; Zakaria et al., 2024).

The results also point to an urgent need for stronger alignment between university training and school contexts, echoing previous scholarship (Korthagen, 2016; Reiban et al., 2024; Samacá, 2021; Sánchez et al., 2024; Zapatero-Ayuso et al., 2021). The evidence suggests several potential strategies for teacher education programmes in ECE and EP, including the incorporation of dedicated courses, seminars, workshops, or practical activities explicitly targeting these critical areas, or the adaptation of existing subjects to align more directly with these competences (Liesa-Orús & Vived-Conte, 2016; Rodríguez et al., 2022).

Contrary to dominant narratives that position classroom management and the accommodation of individual differences as principal challenges, the findings of this study demonstrate that participants perceived substantial improvements in student performance during the Practicum, contingent upon the intentional and effective design and application of pedagogical resources and methodologies. Consistent with Reiban et al. (2024), the study evidences the innovative contributions of pre-service teachers to the pedagogical dynamics of educational institutions—contributions that were recognised and valued by school mentors. Such progress in professional competences, as attested by both school mentors and educational inspectors, was linked to the capacity of pre-service teachers to tailor their pedagogical proposals to the particular contexts of each institution and to align these with the instructional approaches of their mentors, fostering interventions that were both pragmatic and contextually responsive. Moreover, a greater openness among pre-service teachers to adopting conventional pedagogical techniques and resources was observed, challenging previous reservations towards traditional methodologies. These findings corroborate the conclusions of Reiban et al. (2024) and Zacaria et al. (2024) and underscore the remarkable adaptability and professional growth exhibited by pre-service teachers during this crucial stage of their training.

From a technical or application-focused perspective (Flores-Lueg, 2022), it is significant that the concerns identified in this study were predominantly practical, with limited engagement in reflective or critical dimensions. From a competency-based standpoint, which underpins the inclusion of the Practicum in university curricula for pedagogical and professional reasons, the findings reveal a dichotomous conception of the Practicum experience, wherein stakeholders primarily emphasise the visible elements of competence—knowledge and skills. This suggests the persistence of a theory–practice dichotomy (university versus school) that risks constraining the formative potential of the Practicum and, in the context examined, may impede progress towards collaborative, reflective, and critical models essential for professional development in teaching (Christoforidou & Kyriakides, 2021; Flores-Lueg, 2022; Samacá, 2021; Sánchez et al., 2024). The findings further highlight an insufficient focus on metacognitive competences, which are fundamental to fostering reflective and collaborative professional cultures (Fontao et al., 2024). This is particularly relevant for two key reasons. Firstly, the Practicum serves as a crucial period for redefining teachers’ professional identities (Rasheed, 2025), wherein the prior knowledge and experience of pre-service teachers provide the foundation for this transformative process (Ardi et al., 2023; Marek et al., 2024). Secondly, the fields of ECE and EP are undergoing rapid transformation, necessitating continuous assessment of professional performance to achieve excellence. The practice of reflection and metacognitive awareness could improve the quality of future teaching (Ho & Lau, 2025).

An alternative interpretation of this application-focused understanding of the Practicum suggests that university supervisors did not emerge as significant figures in fostering competency development among pre-service teachers. This observation reveals an area warranting further inquiry and represents a potential direction for future research. Prior literature has consistently underscored the importance of interaction and collaboration among pre-service teachers, university supervisors, and school mentors as a critical determinant of competence development and the formation of professional identity (Çelik & Zehir, 2024; Martín-Romera et al., 2022; Rasheed, 2025; Samacá, 2021; Yan & He, 2020).

Consequently, university supervisors could play an essential role in facilitating deeper reflection and critical engagement with the experiences encountered during the Practicum. This constitutes a limitation of the present study, which, despite offering a comprehensive overview of perceptions regarding professional development across multiple competences, does not allow for an in-depth exploration of specific dimensions that could shed light on the less visible facets of the competence development process. Additionally, the greater representation of pre-service teachers within the participant sample may be considered a limitation, as it results in a higher frequency of quotations from this group in the presentation of results. However, this predominance also reflects the central role of pre-service teachers as the actors most directly and continuously engaged in Practicum contexts and classroom practice in ECE and PE settings.

5 Conclusions

It can be concluded that the Practicum examined in this study contributed significantly to the development of future teachers’ competences. This provided a key opportunity to address deficiencies in training, supported by the guidance of school mentors within educational centres. The main areas of development and concern were classroom control and management, as well as attention to diversity and the individualisation of teaching. Competences involving the implementation of teaching methodologies and the use of educational resources were identified as essential for effective performance by teachers in initial training and were positively evaluated by educational centre staff. However, an application-oriented conception of the Practicum prevailed, which limited the visibility of other components of competence relevant to professional practice, such as metacognition, professional responsibility, and reflective-critical awareness.

These findings carry practical implications for initial teacher education programmes, shedding light on the key challenges that ECE and PE trainee teachers encounter in developing professional competences during the Practicum. While grounded in the Spanish context, the results offer analytically generalizable insights (Yin, 2014) applicable to comparable teacher education systems across Europe and Latin America. The results suggest that adopting innovative methodologies and developing new resources can facilitate the integration of future teachers into educational centres and promote constructive interactions with school mentors. In contrast, classroom management and attention to individual differences require greater emphasis in university curricula and in the practices of those responsible for supervising teaching practice. Strengthening these areas would enhance the preparation of student teachers and better equip them to respond to the common challenges encountered in real classrooms. Ultimately, the overall goal remains the well-being and optimal development of the children and adolescents with whom future teachers interact during their initial training.