1 Introduction

Plastic and visual education is a subject included in the Early Childhood and Primary Education Teaching Degree in all Spanish universities. Despite the importance conferred to it by the laws regulating compulsory education in Spain and the support of numerous studies that highlight its value for the development of social skills, creativity and critical thinking (Bea, 2004; Rabkin & Redmond, 2006) students perceive it, similar to society at large, as secondary compared to other subjects. This perception contributes to an educational devaluation of the subject itself (Moilanen & Mertala, 2020).

Art education is seen as something exclusively for artists; meaning that it is only viable for those who, according to their criteria, possess special innate abilities (Esteve-Faubel, 2019). As a result, on a social level it is considered logical that in compulsory education and the preparation of future teachers at university level it be reflected in a timetable reduction, which translates into a lack of training for these educators, who already show serious deficiencies in basic knowledge on the subject (Esteve-Faubel et al. 2021).

One of the possible strategies for overcoming these difficulties and achieving more effective training has been the implementation of Blended Learning (BL) in the Didactics of Plastic Expression subject, with 6 ECTS credits that are broken down into 60 h of direct work in university classrooms and 90 h of individual work, within the studies encompassing Early Childhood and Primary Education teaching degrees at the Faculty of Education of the University of Alicante.

The problem with this approach is related to the lack of necessary skills, both organisational and motivational, to carry out the proposed autonomous work, due to the scarcity or complete lack of previous training.

For this reason, the BL model is planned considering a situation of contextualised learning in the social reality most familiar to the student, that is, in a virtual environment. Technological tools such as Edpuzzle and Moodle are incorporated, together with a Flipped Classroom (FC) methodology (Abeysekera & Dawson, 2015; O'Flaherty & Phillips, 2015), which serve as a guide for autonomous learning away from the classroom. The objective is to evaluate whether these actions contribute to creating an adequate working environment and developing student learning capacities.

The scientific literature in this field indicates that one of the ways of improving learning efficacy, satisfaction and efficiency in higher education (Graham et al. 2013) is via the combination of in situ teaching and autonomous out-of-class learning, mediated through information technology (Kundu et al. 2021), in other words, applying a hybrid BL methodology.

This way of understanding BL supposes a new way of producing, distributing and receiving university education (Castro, 2019) due to the adaptability afforded by the incorporation of ICT tools, which, as indicated by Fernandes et al. (2016), have the ability to respond to the different learning rhythms of students, thus contributing to their autonomous learning development. In this case Edpuzzle and the Moodle forum shall be used, characterised for being free, easy to manage ICT tools, which can be accessed from different devices such as computers, tablets and smartphones.

Edpuzzle, an online tool, permits anything from the incorporation of open and multiple choice questions, which facilitates the tracking and monitoring of learning on the part of the teacher (Ayçiçek & Yanpar Yelken, 2018), to the storing, editing and modifying of videos they produce themselves or obtain from the web, with clarifying notes and feedback, and for example converting a possible asynchronous video lesson into an interactive, motivating and controlled experience (Cesare et al. 2021).

Mischel (2018), who also points out these advantages, acknowledges that a limitation of this tool is the lack of direct communication between the learner and the teacher during the viewing of the content. To overcome the aforementioned limitation, this research complemented the use of Edpuzzle with another platform, Moodle, and scheduled face-to-face classes.

As regards Moodle, which is a learning management system widely used in higher education, the University of Alicante includes this platform in its virtual campus, where it creates a dynamic and modular learning environment adapted to the needs of teachers and students and permits the storing of and interaction with Edpuzzle.

In terms of its forum, it is important to indicate that it promotes teacher-student and student–teacher communication with a constructivist type pedagogical aim that bases learning on social interaction (Deng & Tavares, 2013). Furthermore, it can be used as an indicator of student academic performance due to the information provided to the teacher by the analysis of the reflexive, critical and structured discussion established between students.

The incorporation of technology is encouraged because generally speaking it contributes significantly towards improving the quality of learning in the educational field (Taylor & Newton, 2013) providing the ideal support for developing new pedagogical and instructional methods (Marchalot et al. 2018), and creating a motivating effect on students upon being closely linked to their most familiar reality (Yip et al. 2019), and their personal context, including blogs, discussion forums, social networks and instant messaging (Nunan et al. 2000). In other words, carrying out similar actions in virtual educational environments is perceived by the students as appropriate, innovative and motivating, as this creates a positive emotional connection with the learning process (Priporas et al. 2017).

The proposed hypothesis is that the incorporation of Edpuzzle and the FC methodology improves the learning capacity of students and promotes a working environment that favours the acquisition of knowledge both in and out-of-class.

To evaluate this hypothesis a methodology is presented that is characterised by offering the student control of time, space and their rhythm of acquiring hard and soft skills (Ginns et al. 2007). Likewise, there is an encouragement of commitment, responsibility, independence, adaptability and assimilation of metacognitive processes (De George‐Walker & Keeffe, 2010), providing the necessary conditions for the development of students who are self-determined and directly involved in their learning process (López-Pérez et al. 2011).

Moreover, the BL designed implies on the one hand that students work on the content before attending class (Zainuddin, 2018) via the pedagogical application of the technology that enables the visualisation of conferences recorded on video, instructional videos, audio recordings and automated tutorials (Chung-Kai & Chun-Yu, 2017) and on the other hand, that teachers are then able to prepare activities for applying this knowledge acquired online to practical problem-solving based matters (Zainuddin & Perera, 2019).

Thus, it can be stated that in situ work is more focused on promoting higher order thinking processes in students and in the constructing of knowledge from practice and interaction with classmates (Strayer, 2012) than in treating them as passive recipients of content.

The following objectives have been set in order to give a response to all of the above:

  1. A.

    Discover the degree of commitment and progress of students in their learning capacity during the implementation of the educational intervention.

  2. B.

    Assess the influence of the implemented methodology and the role of the teacher in the learning environment.

  3. C.

    Analyse the level of satisfaction with their learning via the implementation of the digital tools implemented and the FC methodology.

2 Method

The research is framed within non-experimental ex post facto research designs and follows cross-sectional qualitative methodological principles, employing semi-structured interviews with open-ended responses based on an agreed-upon script. It is worth noting that no specific instructions were provided, allowing for greater freedom in the construction of participants' discourses. The methodology applied was inductive, starting from the emergent nature of the qualitative data obtained, and constant comparison was used to identify similarities and differences in the analysed contents (Dahlberg & McCaig, 2010).

This approach is justified as it seeks to analyse and interpret participants' conceptions of the investigated subject in a specific social context. Furthermore, this approach facilitates significant access to underlying information (Briggs, 2008; Duggleby, 2005) by enabling reflection on participants' thoughts and experiences (Clandinin & Murphy, 2009).

In the context of artistic education, this approach acquires particular relevance due to the inherent complexity of teaching and learning processes in these areas. Exploring this proposal from multiple perspectives promotes idea generation and knowledge co-construction.

2.1 Field work

The research was conducted at the Faculty of Education, University of Alicante, during the academic year 2022–2023. The sample comprised 289 students, of whom 92.4% (N = 267) were female and 7.6% (N = 22) were male, enrolled in the mandatory subject of Didactics of Plastic Expression in the fourth year of the Bachelor's Degree in Early Childhood Education, which carries 6 ECTS credits. This subject is taught in a total of 7 groups by three different professors, (2 groups, 2 groups and 3 groups respectively), 5 of these groups containing 41 students and 2 groups containing 42 students. These groups spread across two sessions: 4 groups in the morning and 3 groups in the afternoon, with no discernible pattern in group configuration. All students are undertaking their first university study and are aged between 21 and 22 years old.

The three professors involved in the design and teaching of the Didactics of Plastic Expression subject in the Bachelor's Degree in Early Childhood Education worked collaboratively to conduct the present research, holding weekly face-to-face meetings to assess the evolution of the experience and explore potential improvements.

A Blended Learning (BL) approach along with Edpuzzle was implemented in Unit 1 (U1). In the same groups, Unit 2 (U2) followed an exclusively face-to-face lecture-based teaching approach.

All students received an explanation of the objectives, the procedure to be followed and the lack of incentive for their collaboration. When the students expressed their acceptance, the implementation of the study began.

2.2 Instruments

The instruments employed for data collection in the 7 groups include:

  • A) A preliminary exploratory questionnaire, comprising 6 open-ended questions, is administered to assess participants' perceptions of their prior experience with plastic education, the Moodle platform, blended learning, and Edpuzzle. The questions cover the following aspects: a) Knowledge acquired in Visual and Plastic Education during compulsory education stages. b) Unregulated knowledge of visual and plastic education prior to higher studies. c) Assessment of their experience in learning this subject at primary, secondary, and post-16 secondary education levels. d) Proficiency in using Edpuzzle and Moodle. e) Advantages of using digital education platforms for knowledge acquisition. f) Previous notions and experience with blended learning models, and how to participate in narratives on the Moodle forum.

  • It should be noted that this questionnaire, although not directly addressing any of the stated objectives, is essential in providing the necessary foundation to demonstrate the absence of biases stemming from participants' prior education that could influence the obtained results.

  • Upon analysis of their narratives, it becomes evident that they lack significant previous experiences in all of these areas except for the use of Moodle, with the participants expressing that they are familiar with it since secondary school and have used it in many of their degree subjects. Consequently, it is inferred that all students are at a comparable level before the commencement of the educational intervention.

  • B) Via the Moodle forum, students shared their experiences and perceptions of the progress in their learning capability in U1 and U2. These reflections and comments were generated from the questions formulated by the teaching team on the forum every week, with the aim of encouraging the exchange of ideas, debate, critical thinking, and collaboration between the future teachers.

  • C) Assessment of U1 and U2 by the teaching staff.

2.3 Procedure

In the first session of the academic year the different groups were presented the daily and weekly work plan to be followed to address both the theoretical and the more practical parts of the subject programme. In reference to U1, they were given an extra explanation including the use of the digital tool Edpuzzle.

Over the 7 sessions of two hours each one that the theoretical-practical contents of U1 were taught, the groups dedicated all face-to-face sessions to resolve doubts with the teachers and work in small cooperative groups to engage in the practical aspects of the U1. Regarding U2, the groups combined practical work in small cooperative groups in the classroom with theoretical lectures during 7 sessions of two hours each one. Each group was structured into subgroups of 10 to 11 students, depending on the total number comprising the class group, for cooperative and practical work in the classroom. (Table 1).

Table 1 Planning of work outside and inside the classroom
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The Edpuzzle videos are used to implement a B-Learning. Students watch the theoretical videos individually at home and, in the next session, they engage in group practical activities to ensure comprehension of the theoretical concepts. If necessary, they request clarifications from the teachers, thus providing feedback in the teaching–learning process. In the case of U2, after theoretical explanations in class, students complete a questionnaire on Moodle regarding the explained concepts.

During Unit 1, students engaged in various online activities, which included watching the theoretical content of Unit 1 through the Edpuzzle educational platform and participating in Moodle forums. As for Unit 2, the only online activity undertaken was participation in forums. Consequently, six explanatory videos were prepared for Unit 1, specifically designed to present theoretical content aligned with the application of blended learning (BL) methodology. These videos were enriched with multiple-choice questions and then uploaded to the Edpuzzle learning platform.

Regarding U2, a series of PowerPoint presentations containing the theoretical content of the unit were designed as a visual support during the face-to-face sessions. In relation to the Moodle platform, all groups used it for submitting assignments and participating in group-specific reflection forums on the learning process. In these weekly forums, students exchanged ideas, emotions, and experiences related to group work and the execution of the practical aspects.

The last two sessions, dedicated to U1 and U2, were focused on oral presentations by working groups, showcasing the results of their theorical-practical work and the assessment was carried out by the teaching staff.

2.4 Data analysis

The analysis of the 6 open questions on the Moodle forum and the corresponding reflections presented by the students regarding their academic progress was carried out using a qualitative approach via the Atlas.ti7 software programme. This was chosen due to its capability to encode text segments, identify patterns and relationships between codes, organize and categorize information, and facilitate collaborative work among researchers. The aim of this analysis was to gain a more detailed understanding of the participants' perceptions and experiences.

An individual analysis of the qualitative content expressed in Moodle forums was conducted, assigning emergent codes to phrases or paragraphs with similar meaning and grouping these codes to identify categories. Subsequently, the various maps of emergent codes from each researcher were brought together to examine commonalities and divergences through result triangulation. It was unnecessary to redefine the codes or categories in any of the sessions, and the minor nuances that arose did not constitute true discrepancies, being respectively addressed in each joint work session, resulting in a 96% consensus.

Both inductive analyses were employed to determine the organisational structure of the code map from which resulting categories emerged. The results are presented in tables grouping the codes under each selected category, with comments chosen for their clarity and representativeness.

3 Results

The results obtained from the preliminary survey on the perceptions and previous experiences of the participants in relation to art education, the use of educational platforms such as Moodle, BL-FC and specific tools such as Edpuzzle, provide a solid basis for understanding the educational context of the students prior to the implementation of any kind of educational intervention.

Despite of the early exposure of all the participants of the study to this knowledge area, the level of artistic education in the curriculum is extremely limited in the compulsory education stages, Table 2.

Table 2 Student sociodemographic characteristics
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In the case of early childhood and primary education, the students only had 2 h per week to divide between plastic and visual and music education. This suggests there is a relatively scarce amount of time dedicated to the visual arts compared to other subjects. The situation does not improve significantly neither in secondary education nor baccalaureate. In secondary education 2 weekly hours are assigned in first and third years and in baccalaureate only two elective subjects are available related to Plastic and Visual Education.

In regard to time dedicated on the part of the students to autonomous learning and the results obtained, as shown in Table 3, a notable improvement can be seen in autonomous work and comprehension of theoretical content out-of-class. These results confirm the effectiveness of the FC methodology, especially via the viewing of the videos corresponding to the theoretical content of unit 1 via the use of the Edpuzzle digital platform.

Table 3 Comprehension of videos and commitment, capacity and implication with out-of-class learning
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It is also observed that to the extent the students become familiar with this method of virtual learning, their level of implication and commitment with learning of the subject increases. This translates into an increase in time dedicated to viewing videos and the completion of the questionnaires to obtain the maximum score. The results demonstrate the importance of active interaction between students with digital resources, which entails an improvement in performance and comprehension of content.

Regarding the influence of the FC methodology in the learning environment, the comments from the students shown in Table 4 indicate a reduction in levels of classroom stress and nerves, attributing this to the availability of more time to do practical tasks and improving interactions between students. Although the role of the teacher has apparently not been central in the teaching–learning process. The students have always felt accompanied by them. They have expressed that “it was like having the teacher at home”, despite recognising that, they were who made decisions on their learning, determining where, when and how to address the tasks.

Table 4 Satisfaction with the employed methodology in U1: FC y TIC
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Generally speaking, there is a high satisfaction among the students as regards the use of ICTs and the FC methodology, 100% of the students agree with the convenience of tackling U1 via the Edpuzzle platform due to its ease of use and versatility. This platform permits free access to content from different devices without restrictions on number of views or time. Moreover, the FC methodology, on separating theoretical teaching and practical application in the classroom, helps them to identify difficulties and seek solutions, and to resolve doubts via interaction with their peers and the teacher.

The evaluation of the methodology employed, and the relevance of the use of ICTs in the learning process of U2 (Table 5), fundamentally draws attention to two questions, namely the reluctance of students towards a totally virtual learning approach and, in relation to the methodology and organisation of work, both in-class and out-of-class, the majority admit a lack of dedication outside class hours.

Table 5 Satisfaction with the employed methodology in U2
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This lack of commitment translates into feelings of nervousness, rushing and anxiety, when facing the handing in of practical tasks, despite having had complete classroom sessions for this purpose.

The correction of the theoretical-practical work in all groups and in almost all students reflects an increase of between 0.5 and 0.75 points in Unit 1 compared to Unit 2. This pattern is observed in the majority of students, with the exception of 11.7% (n = 34) who obtained a very similar grade below the average in both units, albeit slightly lower in Unit 2.

4 Discussions

The approach employed in the study, essentially represents a manifestation of the learning model advocated since the inception of the Bologna Process. This method involves both a combination of in-class and individual work conducted outside the classroom. Additionally, it includes an evaluation process that encompasses both formative assessment, conducted during the learning process to monitor progress and provide feedback, and summative assessment, carried out at the end of the process to determine the level of achievement reached. The outcome of this evaluation indicates the effectiveness of the teaching–learning process and the efficacy of what is intended to be taught.

The implementation of activities both inside and outside the classroom, in the students’ opinion, is an effective strategy to address visual and plastic education, and the marks obtained in the evaluation of U1 compared to U2 confirm this.

Overall, no highly significant differences were observed between both methodologies when evaluating Units 1 and 2 across any of the groups. However, scores were higher in Unit 1, with an increase of between 0.5 and 0.75 points in almost all students, indicating that each student in Unit 2 scored between 0.5 and 0.75 points lower than in Unit 1.

The lack of a more pronounced difference between the two approaches, although slightly leaning towards the use of ICT, has been addressed and justified in the comments expressed by students during the focus group discussions.

All students unanimously express their preference for what we could consider an innovative educational intervention over conventional pedagogical approaches. While it is true that, for them, this preference entailed additional dedication, especially considering that all the effort, even though it resulted in better subject knowledge, led them to perceive, on one hand, that it was "outside of academic hours". However, it is important to recall that the ECTS credit system entails a specific dedication of both face-to-face and individual study hours. On the other hand, it was their first experience confronting a "novel way of teaching and learning".

Regarding the results obtained in Unit 2 and the slight decrease in their grades, students attribute this situation to reduced effort and consider that, despite this, "the grades were not worse". However, they attribute this fact to two factors: the dedication of the teaching staff, who continuously adjusted their educational approach during the teaching–learning process, and the individual tutorials, whether virtual or face-to-face, that students requested and were always attended to by the teaching staff. In their own words, "without these tutorials, often conducted outside the established schedule, we would have surely obtained worse grades".

The constant that unites both academic approaches is the creation of a positive working environment and mutual trust, which has had a beneficial impact on the development of students' learning skills. However, in terms of knowledge acquisition, both in technical skills (hard skills) and in social and emotional skills (soft skills), the teaching staff observed a disparity between U1 and U2 in favour of U1, which was also reflected in the students' narratives (Tables 4 and 5).

The new distribution of time in and out-of-class, applying the BL-FC model, is linked to changes in the roles of the participants, both teachers and students in the teaching–learning process (Sohrabi & Iraj, 2016). It is considered that this contributes towards an improvement in the quality of time in the classroom permitting a better interaction between the students and the teacher, the exploration of different concepts and the carrying out of active learning practical work. These changes entail pedagogic and significant learning advantages thanks to the new planning of both in and out-of-class time.

It is considered that this contributes towards an improvement in the quality of time in the classroom. permitting a better interaction between the students and the teacher, the exploration of different concepts and the carrying out of active learning practical work. These changes entail pedagogic and significant learning advantages thanks to the new planning of both in and out-of-class time.

As regards the changing of roles, the student becomes an active element in their learning (Baepler et al. 2014), takes control of their own knowledge acquisition rhythm and feels motivated by a more practical and active classroom context that drives them to recover, apply and broaden material learnt online. In other words, they are no longer only receivers; they are content creators, as they know how to apply their knowledge to other situations.

In terms of the teachers, this methodological approach turns them into guides (Bergmann & Sams, 2012; Flumerfelt & Green, 2013) who interact with students, listen to their doubts, monitor their efforts, and provide feedback. This change involves a transition towards an approach more orientated towards support and facilitation of students’ autonomous learning, instead of being the main transmitters of information.

In this regard, it is important to highlight the influence of the attitudes, behaviours, and strategies employed by the teacher on state motivation, that is, the motivation derived from the learning situation/classroom (Froment, Bohórquez, & Garcia Gonzalez, 2021; Froment, Garcia Gonzalez, et al. 2021a, b).

As far as the integration of ICTs and the role of the teacher is concerned the group of students show considerable resistance towards virtual classes at the beginning of the experience. Despite not having worked with a FC methodology or having used the Edpuzzle platform previously, they implicitly express their rejection of this teaching–learning approach as they associated anything virtual with online lectures.

It is important to bear in mind that this group of students due to the Covid-19 pandemic spent an entire academic year receiving education exclusively online and, during this period they lost something they valued positively: the interaction among classmates and with teachers.

Students express their preference for the combination of face-to-face and virtual learning. Although students value positively the use of ICT and the FC methodology, some express a preference for face-to-face explanations and eye contact with the teacher and peers. This highlights the importance of finding a balance between face-to-face and virtual learning to meet the needs of all learners.

Overall, the data highlight the importance of balancing virtual and face-to-face learning experiences and addressing students' preferences for interaction and participation in the learning process.

Although they consider themselves digital natives and show interest in everything related to ICTs. the reality is that their skill in using these digital tools in the field of education is quite limited (Margaryan et al, 2011).

According to objective 1, in the U1, with the incorporation of the digital tools and the FC methodology, the students hold the initial perception of having improved their learning capacities such as, for example, autonomous work and understanding of theoretical content outside the classroom, together with the skill to solve problems or the ability to be effective in group work. This improvement is attributed to the effectiveness of the FC methodology, especially through the viewing of videos corresponding to the theoretical content of U1 using the Edpuzzle digital platform. This is due to the fact that the FC methodology enables them to follow a rhythm adapted to their needs.

Furthermore, it is observed that as students become more familiar with this method of e-learning, their level of involvement and commitment to learning the subject increases. This is reflected in an increase in time spent watching videos and completing quizzes to obtain the maximum score. The results highlight the importance of active interaction between students and digital resources, leading to improved performance and understanding of the content.

The FC provides an active learning environment that keeps students at the centre of the educational process and affords an active participation of the students in the classroom (Hung, 2015). The activities in class probably create a positive opinion towards these models as, via the practical work, the students obtain direct learning experiences.

In accordance with Zainuddin (2018) the students feel they are progressing in the acquisition of learning skills more quickly with the FC methodology than with a more traditional one because it gives them the opportunity to take ownership of their learning, letting them prepare the theoretical content before the in-situ sessions. This access to the contents before the practical work in class gives students intrinsic motivation towards group work and learning.

The FC methodology, supported by digital tools, not only improves student learning capacities, but also encourages autonomy, confidence and motivation intrinsic in the learning process, which significantly contributes to their educational and personal development.

In relation to the second objective, the results show a more positive assessment of the effective out-of-class learning environment on the part of the U1 compared to the U2, Nevertheless, the perception of the in-class environment is similar in all the groups.

Mention should be made of the fact that the majority of the students are satisfied with the FC methodology applied in U1 and the opportunity to tackle the theoretical content of the subject independently via the videos shared on the Edpuzzle learning platform. Nevertheless, paradoxically, one group of these same students also indicates that, although satisfied with the teaching proposal, it has demanded from them a considerable dedication in terms of time and effort away from the classroom.

These opinions strongly underline the social belief that the Plastic and Visual area should mainly have a focus based on play and experience, being limited to the assigned university class timetable.

“We’re given the explanation in class, we do the practical work immediately and that’s it. At home we have just to study for the exams”.

Despite all of the groups positively assessing the effective learning environment created in the classroom, the results of the U1 showed a greater satisfaction with the learning environment provided by the ICTs and the FC methodology.

In accordance with Porter et al. (2014) the BL methodologies as shown by the students’ narratives, create an accessible and flexible working atmosphere that reinforces student autonomy, reflection, self-control, empowerment and research capacity, commonly referred to as soft skills (Jun & Ling, 2011; Macedo-Rouet et al. 2009; Richardson & Turner, 2000; Chust-Perez & Esteve-Faubel, 2022). Notably, Chust-Perez and Esteve-Faubel (2022) emphasize the allocation of in-situ sessions entirely to active learning activities focused on practical work, while dedicating part of their out-of-class time to reflections and discussions with classmates on the Moodle forum.

In the flipped classroom approach the students establish a more direct interaction with the teacher, as classroom time is completely dedicated to the practical work, in contrast to more traditional methodologies. Moreover, there is encouragement to think both inside and outside the classroom (Kellinger, 2012), which helps them to be active apprentices who participate in their learning process.

In reference to the third study objective, the level of satisfaction of the students with the digital tools and the BL and FC methodologies was evaluated via the comments and reflection shared on the Moodle forums on the groups. The majority of the students expressed a high level of satisfaction with both the FC methodology and Edpuzzle and Moodle (Lim & Morris, 2009; Salamonson & Lantz, 2005). This was due to these ICTs enabling them to access the explanatory videos as many times as was necessary and complement their learning resolving doubts in the classroom, with the teacher and with their peers (Elmaadaway, 2018).

The high satisfaction of the students is due to the versatility the digital elements afford to these methodologies, as they permit an individualised response to the different student learning needs, upon adapting to the nature of the subject matter and the experience of the teacher (Macedo-Rouet et al. 2009). Further, they value their use in classrooms positively, because for them it is innate in that it forms part of their private sphere, thus increasing their motivation and, therefore, their participation and efficiency in the learning process (Murillo-Zamorano et al. 2019; Yip et al. 2019).

Flipped classes create flexible learning environments as they provide active learning activities and enable students to take on individual learning responsibilities. Therefore, it can be concluded that the flipped classroom model is effective for establishing an efficient learning process. This approach allows students to acquire new skills and modify their learning habits, which significantly contributes to their educational and personal development.

Regarding the study limitations, the desirable need to expand the sample is emphasized, including students from other education faculties in Spain or in other foreign countries with similar study programmes. This fact would allow for a more comprehensive understanding of the benefits and challenges associated to the different pedagogical approaches applied, thereby contributing to a more robust knowledge base applicable to diverse educational scenarios. However, it is important to note that exact replication of conditions and contexts in subsequent studies may be challenging, potentially limiting the reproducibility of findings if the initial conditions are not the same.

Additionally, it is important to highlight that data collection and analysis, as well as the proposed teaching–learning procedure, require significant time and effort from researchers. This aspect should be taken into account in the planning and execution of the study.

Despite the aforementioned limitations, this study shows significant progress in terms of student satisfaction with their learning, both in and out-of-class, that is, in the development of autonomous learning, when BL methodologies are used such as the FC resolved with ICT tools. The BL methodologies are considered active approaches that permit time management and work planning away from the classroom that generates a high level of satisfaction in students because the perceive improvements in their learning capacities.

It is relevant to point out that, although these methodologies. BL and FC, develop student learning capacity, this is also the case with more traditional methodologies, but implements different teaching resources and, in general, without incorporating ICT in the teaching–learning planning process.

It is essential to draw attention to the fact that the involvement of the teacher both inside and outside the classroom, in the U1 and U2, has led to the creation of a good working atmosphere, and the creation of teacher-student and student–teacher relationships of trust, which has had a positive effect on the development of the students’ learning capacities.

5 Conclusion

In conclusion, the results of this study highlight the importance of addressing deficiencies in visual and plastic education in the school curriculum. It is essential that more resources and time are allocated to these areas to ensure that students have the apported unity to develop fundamental creative and visual skills.

In addition, the integration of educational technologies and innovative pedagogical strategies can help improve the learning experience of students and better prepare them to face the challenges of the modern world.

The use given to BL in this study does not just redefine the way in which time is used inside and outside the classroom, but also transforms the traditional roles of teacher and student, encouraging more autonomous, interactive and participative learning. These changes promote a more dynamic and enriching educational environment for all of the agents involved in the process.

It is important to continue exploring these approaches to keep improving the quality of education and prepare future teachers for the challenges of the twenty-first century, above all taking into account the limitation in time dedicated to artistic education at all educational levels, which can have a negative effect on the development of skills and knowledge in this field.

These time limitations further underline the importance of exploring alternative educational approaches, such as BL, to compensate for the lack of exposure and time dedicated to the visual arts in the compulsory curriculum and implementing innovative methodologies may mark the difference upon giving the students a more complete and significant experience in the field of visual arts.

The combination of BL, ICT and online interactive activities gives students the opportunity of an artistic learning beyond time limits, as well as permitting collaboration between teachers and students, creating a dynamic and enriching environment for learning, as well as finding a balance between face-to-face and virtual learning to optimise the learning experience.