1 Introduction

The provision of infrastructure is fundamental to the developmental success of any nation [1]. Without a well-established network of physical, social, and economic infrastructure, no country can expect to achieve sustainable growth or improve the quality of life for its citizens [1]. In Nigeria, the responsibility for the provision and maintenance of such infrastructure traditionally lies with the government. However, this responsibility has been met with significant challenges that have hindered the country’s development [2]. One of the most critical barriers to infrastructure development in Nigeria is the issue of public funding. The government, which relies heavily on revenue from the oil and gas sector, has faced fiscal constraints due to fluctuations in global oil prices [3]. These fluctuations often result in budgetary shortfalls, making it difficult to allocate sufficient funds for large-scale infrastructure projects [3]. Additionally, Nigeria's public sector is burdened with inefficiencies that stem from over-centralized decision-making, lack of accountability, and an outdated regulatory framework, further complicating the process of infrastructure delivery. Corruption, a long-standing issue within the public sector, diverts funds meant for development into private pockets, exacerbating the challenge of providing essential services such as transportation, healthcare, education, and energy supply [2]. As a result of these deficiencies, the Nigerian government has increasingly sought the participation of the private sector to bridge the infrastructure gap. This has been primarily done through Public–Private Partnerships (PPPs), which involve collaboration between the government and private entities to develop, finance, and manage public infrastructure and services [4]. PPPs have become an attractive option because they not only bring much-needed financial resources but also introduce private sector efficiency, technical expertise, and innovation into the delivery of public projects [5]. The adoption of PPPs has accelerated in Nigeria in response to the deteriorating state of infrastructure across various sectors, including transport, energy, water, and sanitation. Roads are poorly maintained, power supply remains erratic, and access to clean water is limited in many parts of the country, all of which are areas that PPPs have the potential to address [5].

However, the implementation of PPPs in Nigeria has not been without its own set of challenges. First, Nigeria’s private sector remains relatively weak, with limited capacity to undertake large-scale infrastructure projects on its own. The country’s capital markets are underdeveloped, making it difficult for local private companies to raise the necessary financing for major projects [2]. As a result, Nigeria has had to rely heavily on foreign private sector investment to finance its PPP initiatives. This dependence on foreign capital brings with it additional risks, including exposure to foreign exchange fluctuations, the imposition of conditions that may not align with local development goals, and a lack of control over key national assets [6]. Additionally, the regulatory and legal frameworks governing PPPs in Nigeria are still evolving, leading to uncertainties in contract enforcement and risk-sharing mechanisms between the public and private sectors [7]. Several challenges arise in the implementation and management of Public–Private Partnership (PPP) projects, making it essential to address these issues for successful outcomes. One of the key challenges is the potential for conflicts of interest between partner organizations. In PPPs, both the public and private sectors have different objectives. The public sector aims to ensure public welfare and meet societal needs, while the private sector is often driven by profit maximization. This inherent difference can create tension, as decisions made in the interest of profit may not always align with public welfare objectives. Communication barriers also pose a significant hurdle in PPP projects [7]. Effective communication between the public and private sectors is crucial for the seamless execution of these projects. These barriers often slow down project progress and can lead to incorrect assumptions or actions that result in delays or suboptimal outcomes. Additionally, the high upfront costs and procurement expenses associated with PPP projects can be prohibitive, especially for developing countries or regions with limited financial resources [8]. The process of structuring a PPP agreement is complex, often involving legal, financial, and technical expertise that adds to the overall cost of project preparation. The lack of expert knowledge, particularly within the public sector, is another pressing issue in PPP projects. Managing complex contracts, ensuring proper risk allocation, and overseeing large-scale infrastructure projects requires a high level of expertise that is often unavailable within government agencies [5]. Without the necessary skills and knowledge, public sector entities may struggle to negotiate favorable terms, resulting in unbalanced agreements that place undue risk on the public sector or fail to adequately protect public interests. Financial risks are also a major concern in PPP projects, especially those related to inflation, interest rates, and currency fluctuations [7]. These risks can have significant impacts on the cost of borrowing, project revenues, and the overall financial viability of a PPP initiative. During the construction phase, challenges such as cost overruns, delays, and design flaws are common. These issues often arise due to inadequate project planning, unforeseen ground conditions, changes in scope, or poor contractor performance [2]. Once a PPP project moves into the operational phase, other challenges emerge, including deficiencies in monitoring, performance mechanisms, and the ability to adapt to demographic and technological changes [7].

The application of digital technologies holds immense potential to address and mitigate the various challenges often associated with Public–Private Partnership (PPP) projects. By integrating such advanced tools into the project lifecycle, key issues such as communication barriers, resource mismanagement, and inefficiencies in contract management can be significantly reduced or even eliminated [9]. In PPPs, where multiple stakeholders with differing objectives are involved, effective communication is crucial to ensuring that all parties are aligned. The use of project management software that integrates digital tools like BIM can streamline communication between public and private entities, allowing them to share real-time information, track progress, and collaborate on decision-making processes [9]. One of the most powerful applications of BIM in PPP projects is its ability to optimize the planning and design phases. BIM creates highly detailed, 3D models that allow for comprehensive visualization of the project before construction begins [10]. This capability is particularly beneficial in identifying and addressing potential design flaws or conflicts early on, thus reducing the likelihood of costly rework or changes during the construction phase. Moreover, BIM enables improved coordination among various disciplines, such as architects, engineers, and contractors, by providing a centralized model where everyone can access and work on the same design data [11]. This collaborative approach helps in ensuring that all aspects of the project are considered and properly aligned, which can lead to fewer delays and budget overruns [9]. Other digital technologies like Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Machine Learning (ML) have begun to revolutionize resource management in PPP projects. These technologies enable predictive analytics, which can forecast project outcomes based on historical data and current trends [12]. For instance, AI can predict potential delays or cost escalations by analyzing real-time data from ongoing projects, allowing project managers to take preemptive measures to mitigate risks.

Despite the proven advantages of digital technologies in improving the success rate of PPP projects, the acquisition of the necessary skills and competencies to effectively implement these tools remains a fundamental challenge [13]. While digital technologies offer immense potential, their successful application depends heavily on the ability of the professionals involved to utilize them properly. This is particularly evident in Nigeria, where there is a significant skills gap that limits the widespread adoption of digital technologies in PPP projects [14]. This study aims to identify and explore the critical competencies required for effectively implementing digital technologies in PPP projects. By understanding the specific skills and knowledge that are needed, industry stakeholders can develop targeted training programs and professional development initiatives to bridge the gap. By facilitating the development of these critical competencies among professionals involved in PPP projects, the construction and infrastructure sectors can greatly improve their ability to deliver successful outcomes.

2 Literature review

2.1 Digital technologies in project management

In contemporary construction practices, several key digital technologies have emerged as transformative tools, revolutionizing various facets of project management and execution. These technologies and their applications include but are not limited to:

  • Building Information Modelling (BIM): Through centralized data management and collaborative platforms, BIM optimizes project workflows, enhances energy efficiency, and facilitates automation [15]. Moreover, BIM software enables precise 3D modeling and cost estimation, ultimately reducing waste and improving planning processes [16]. Building Information Modeling (BIM) technology enables the digital representation of physical and functional characteristics, facilitating a more integrated approach to design, construction, and project management. BIM supports the creation of accurate models that reduce rework, enhance collaboration among stakeholders, and lead to faster completion times [17].

  • Artificial Intelligence/Machine Learning: In the realm of AI/ML, advancements have led to predictive analytics and automation, significantly impacting construction project outcomes. Vision-based AI, for instance, enables contactless interaction within immersive environments, thereby enhancing design and operational phases [17]. Artificial intelligence also plays a critical role by enhancing decision-making in PPP projects through predictive analytics and machine learning. AI technologies streamline various aspects of construction, from planning and design to on-site execution, thus minimizing delays and resource wastage [18].

  • Immersive Technologies (AR/VR): Immersive technologies such as Virtual Reality (VR), Augmented Reality (AR), and Mixed Reality (MR) are reshaping collaboration and visualization within construction projects. These technologies facilitate enhanced design iterations, stakeholder engagement, and on-site decision-making which are very crucial in PPP projects [10]. Moreover, VR and AR have become indispensable tools for project management, offering realistic simulations and virtual walkthroughs [19].

  • Robotics and Unmanned Aerial Vehicles: Robotics and UAVs represent a burgeoning frontier in construction automation and monitoring. UAVs, or drones, are increasingly utilized for inspection, surveying, and safety monitoring, offering enhanced efficiency and accuracy during construction of PPP projects [20]. Furthermore, drones contribute to cost reduction, productivity enhancement, and dispute mitigation, marking a significant shift in construction project methodologies [21].

  • Geographic Information Systems (GIS): GIS enables the analysis and visualization of geographical data, helping in site selection, environmental impact assessments, and infrastructure planning. In PPP projects, GIS supports decision-making by providing spatial data that enhances the planning and monitoring of construction activities [22].

  • Project Management Software: These tools facilitate project planning, scheduling, and resource management, ensuring that PPP projects are delivered on time and within budget. They allow for better coordination between public and private partners by providing a centralized platform for tracking project milestones [6].

  • Digital Twin Technology: Digital twins create a virtual replica of physical assets, enabling real-time monitoring, simulation, and analysis. In PPP projects, digital twins can be used to optimize the performance of infrastructure, predict maintenance needs, and ensure the long-term sustainability of the project [23].

  • Cloud Computing: Cloud computing enables the storage, sharing, and processing of vast amounts of project data in real-time. For PPP projects, cloud platforms facilitate collaboration between dispersed teams, ensure data security, and provide scalability as project demands evolve [24].

In summary, these categories of digital technologies signify a paradigm shift in construction practices, promising greater efficiency, sustainability, and innovation across the industry.

2.2 Challenges in managing PPP Projects

The advantages of PPP construction projects are undeniable. First and foremost, they offer much-needed financial relief to governments. By leveraging private sector resources and expertise, PPPs can bridge the ever-widening infrastructure funding gap [4]. This allows governments to focus their resources on other pressing social needs, while still ensuring progress on critical infrastructure projects. Beyond financial benefits, PPPs also contribute to quality services and operational efficiency. Private firms often bring a wealth of experience and innovative approaches to the table, leading to improved design, construction, and operational practices [4]. This can translate into more durable infrastructure, reduced maintenance costs, and ultimately, a better experience for the public.

Despite their numerous advantages, PPP construction projects are not without their challenges. One significant hurdle lies in human factors. Balancing the potentially conflicting interests of public and private stakeholders requires careful negotiation and ongoing communication to ensure project success [25]. While PPPs offer advantages such as improved project analysis and innovative solutions, they may exacerbate funding uncertainties and fiscal commitments if not managed prudently. Effective management of stakeholder dynamics is crucial to avoid delays, cost overruns, and quality compromises. Uncertainties surrounding project conditions and financial viability can also pose significant risks to PPP implementation [6]. Thorough feasibility studies, robust risk allocation strategies, and transparent communication are essential to mitigate these uncertainties and build trust among all stakeholders involved. The tendering stage of PPP projects can be another source of complexity. Developing clear and well-defined bid criteria, coupled with robust evaluation processes, is essential to attract qualified private sector partners and ensure value for money [26]. High costs associated with the tendering process further highlight the need for efficient and well-designed procurement mechanisms.

The intricate nature of PPP projects demands efficient project management systems. These systems integrate various project functions, encompassing design, construction, financing, operation, and maintenance, into a cohesive framework that facilitates seamless project execution [26]. The PPP project life cycle performance management system, for example, provides a comprehensive approach to managing construction projects by integrating production, transportation, construction, operation, recycling, and monitoring systems [26].

2.3 Integration of digital technologies in PPP project management

Studies have consistently shown the positive influence of digital technology integration on construction project teams. This positive influence extends demonstrably to PPP projects as well. Digital integration not only enhances overall project outcomes but also equips project managers with improved competencies for risk management and resource allocation. Additionally, it plays a crucial role in reducing energy consumption throughout the construction process [27, 28]. This translates to significant cost savings while also laying a strong foundation for sustainable development in PPP initiatives. Digital construction management platforms empower project teams with real-time monitoring capabilities. These platforms enable the continuous monitoring of equipment, material tracking, and project data [29]. This fosters improved quality control, increased efficiency in resource management, and strengthens overall project governance within PPP structures.

Despite the numerous benefits offered by digital integration, there are still challenges that need to be addressed. Studies identify lagging transformation within the construction industry due to skills gap, interoperability issues between different digital tools, and the potential neglect of sustainability considerations as key hurdles [30]. Overcoming these challenges requires a multifaceted approach. Factors such as targeted training programs for stakeholders, the development of standardized methodologies for digital implementation, and a focus on organizational development are crucial [30]. Effective communication strategies also play a vital role, particularly in developing economies like Nigeria, where digital adoption might be slower [31]. However, the future seems bright. The integration of advanced modeling software like BIM, coupled with innovative concepts like smart infrastructure, has shown immense potential in enhancing design accuracy, cost estimation, and lifecycle management in PPP construction projects [31].

Looking ahead, the potential for digital technologies to transform the landscape of infrastructure development through PPP projects is truly remarkable. By leveraging cutting-edge tools such as drone data capture for progress monitoring, visual intelligence platforms for automated data analysis, and 5D BIM for integrating cost and time considerations into the design phase, projects can achieve unprecedented levels of visibility, data-driven decision-making, and cost optimization [32]. However, for these benefits to be fully realized, stakeholders must remain focused on addressing the challenges related to interoperability between different digital tools, ensuring sustainable practices are embedded throughout the project lifecycle, and fostering a culture of organizational readiness for digital adoption.

Public–Private Partnership (PPP) projects in the construction industry are increasingly recognizing the potential of digital technologies to enhance efficiency, productivity, and overall project outcomes [3]. However, the adoption of digital technologies in PPP projects faces numerous barriers that hinder their successful implementation.. This requires fostering innovation, awareness, and collaboration among industry stakeholders [3]. Investment in up-skilling and enhancing data management complexity and technology integration are crucial steps in this direction [33]. A holistic implementation process tailored to address specific challenges is paramount [33]. This involves recognizing and tackling acceptance, control, competence, and leadership barriers effectively [33]. Leadership characteristics, resource constraints, technological challenges, and risk perceptions must be addressed through targeted interventions to foster a conducive environment for digital innovation [30].

In PPP projects, challenges such as data management complexity and technology integration barriers necessitate systematic frameworks and real-time communication enhancement [34]. Improved data transformation methods, along with the utilization of machine learning and automation, are critical in overcoming manual data processing and underutilization challenges [35]. Institutional weaknesses, political interference, and lack of public involvement pose significant challenges in PPP projects [8]. Addressing these barriers requires reforming legal frameworks, enhancing public participation, and reducing political influence. Strengthening regulatory frameworks and fostering transparent decision-making processes can mitigate these institutional barriers [8]. Challenges related to knowledge gaps and changes in business practices necessitate concerted efforts to facilitate skill development and smooth transitions to digital systems [11]. Investing in education, training, and skill development programs can bridge knowledge gaps and ensure a workforce capable of effectively utilizing digital technologies [8]. Social media adoption in projects faces barriers such as lack of strategy, senior management support, security concerns, and information overload [30]. Intelligent integration of social media platforms can help overcome these barriers by facilitating communication, collaboration, and knowledge sharing among project stakeholders [27].

Addressing barriers to implementing digital technologies in PPP projects requires a multifaceted approach that addresses technical, environmental, social, and regulatory dimensions [3, 36]. By fostering innovation, enhancing awareness, and investing in skill development and regulatory reforms, stakeholders can overcome these barriers and unlock the full potential of digital technologies in PPP projects [37]. Collaboration, strategic planning, and continuous improvement are essential in navigating the complex landscape of digital innovation in PPP projects [3, 38].

In any human endeavor, the importance of training and retraining cannot be overstated [39]. This sentiment holds especially true in the construction industry, where ongoing, relevant, and appropriate training is essential for employees to perform to the expected level, ultimately ensuring the success of businesses [39]. The following sections of this study seek to address this by identifying and analyzing critical skills that will help make more informed decisions when training professionals handling PPP projects.

3 Methodology

To achieve the objectives in this study, a multi-sectional survey research strategy was adopted. This was chosen to suit the process of identification of variables and regression of the identified variables. A quantitative research approach was designed for this research due to its effectiveness in gathering data on specific skills and perceptions from a large number of participants since the study involved testing of independent and dependent variables [40]. Questionnaire was used in collecting information from construction professionals actively working in the industry who are the population for this study. This approach involved targeting professionals with relevant experience in construction projects, such as engineers, architects, and builders, through their professional associations and online platforms.

The questionnaire was meticulously developed to gather reliable data on the perceived importance of various competencies for successful integration of digital technologies in PPP Projects. The first section of the questionnaire provided an informed consent statement explaining the purpose of the study, the voluntary nature of participation, and the option to withdraw at any stage. Questions were carefully crafted to ensure clearness and avoid revealing any personal information. The questionnaire was split into two sections. The first section focused on collecting demographic information of the respondents, such as their professional background, years of experience, educational background, and company size. The second section addressed the core objective of the study, which was to identify and explore the critical skills for successful implementation of digital technologies in Nigeria. Based on a thorough review of existing literature on relevant competencies for digital technology application in construction projects, a list of 18 competencies was compiled. These competencies were grouped into two (2) categories based on their nature [41]. The first group, termed “technical competencies”, consists of skills which are learned through education or hands-on experience. The second group, termed “managerial competencies”, consists of skills, traits and abilities that you develop throughout your entire life [39].

A purposive sampling technique was employed to identify and select a sample of 200 individuals. Purposive sampling is a strategic non-probability sampling technique that intentionally selects particular individuals as part of the sample because of specific characteristics they possess [42]. The response rate for the survey was 163 out of 200 distributed questionnaires (81.5%). The questionnaire presented these skills to respondents using a clear and concise format. To ensure the effectiveness and clarity of the questionnaire, a pilot study was conducted with a small group of five individuals. This group included a PhD student specializing in construction management, two experienced PhD holders in related fields, and two industry professionals actively working in digital construction projects. Their feedback was invaluable in refining the questionnaire. Data collection was facilitated through Google Forms, an online platform that offers user-friendly features for questionnaire administration and data security.

3.1 Measures of variables

The variables which measured the competencies required for the effective implementation of digital construction management were adapted from the works of [14, 36, 38, 43]. Eighteen (18) competencies were listed in the questionnaire and the respondents were asked to tick their level of agreement on the importance of the listed competencies in implementation of digital technologies in PPP Projects. The level of agreement was measured on a five-point Likert scale of 1 = Strongly disagree, 2 = Disagree, 3 = Neutral, 4 = Agree, 5 = Strongly Agree.

To determine the level of agreement of professionals on the importance of the listed competencies, two key metrics were calculated and interpreted: Mean Item Score (MIS) and Relative Importance Index (RII) [44]. The MIS represents the average rating for each skill, providing an overall picture of its importance. The RII ranks the skills based on their relative importance. Equations (1) and (2) below were used to calculate the MIS and RII respectively.

$$MIS = {\sum }_{i=1}^{5}RPi \times Ri\%$$
(1)

where RPi is the rating point ‘i’ ranging from 1–5 and Ri% is the percentage response to rating point ‘i'.

$$RII = \frac{{\sum }RP}{RPmax \times N}$$
(2)

where RP is the rating point, RPmax is the maximum rating (5), and N is the number of responses (163).

Furthermore, non-parametric statistical tests, namely Mann–Whitney U-test and Kruskal–Wallis test, were conducted. The Mann–Whitney U-test was employed to investigate the disparity between the respondents' assessments of technical and managerial competencies. The Kruskal–Wallis test was used to determine whether there are differences in the perception of competencies among construction professionals based on their profession and company size.

3.2 Demographic details of respondents

Table 1 shows the profile of 163 construction professionals that participated in the survey. Over 80% of the respondents are male. The construction industry is male dominated due to the nature of the work. Since we carried out the study primarily on site-based professionals, it is expected to have more male than female respondents [45]. Based on their experience in the construction industry, more than half of the respondents have working experience of less than 5 years while the rest of the sample had over 5 years' experience in the industry. The high number of construction professionals with relatively low working experience indicates the dominance of early career professionals on sites. As they advance, they transition into managerial roles [41]. Nevertheless, the percentage distribution among the three groups indicates representation of professionals with varying work experience. For the company sizes, 68.7% of the respondents work in organizations with less than employees, 17.8% work in organizations with 51–100 employees, while the rest work in organizations with over 100 employees. 86.5% of the respondents work in organizations with fewer than 100 employees. This data shows that the majority of the respondents are employed by SMEs. In terms of profession, 64.3% are engineers, 25.2% architects, 8.6% builders and the rest from other professions. This shows that the respondents are all construction professionals who are active stakeholders from conception to completion of construction projects. On the strength of this percentage representation, the respondents can give reliable information about relevant competencies for integration of digital technologies in PPP Projects.

Table 1 Characteristics of respondents
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4 Results and discussion

4.1 Results

4.1.1 Competencies for effective integration of digital technologies in PPP projects

As indicated in Table 2, the critical skills were drawn from Table 3 and divided into technical and managerial competency categories so that each could be examined separately for relevance. The general respondents' mean values for the top 10 competencies show a minimum range spectrum, ranging from the lowest value of 4.09 to the highest value of 4.31, suggesting a high level of importance for these competencies. The respondents believe that managerial competencies are more important than technical competencies, with a mean score of 4.22 based on the average mean of each category. Examining the individual competencies, using a cut-off value of 4.20, it could be observed that the following are the most significant to application of digital technologies in PPP projects: proficiency in using BIM software and digital construction management tools; continuous learning and keeping up with technological advancements; project planning and organization skills; time management skills and problem-solving skills. Four out of five of these competencies are classified as managerial competencies further validating the significance of managerial competencies as perceived by the respondents.

Table 2 Classification of the critical competencies into technical and managerial
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Table 3 Competencies for effective integration of digital technologies in managing PPP projects
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4.1.2 Difference in effectiveness of competencies for digital technologies in PPP projects

Mann–Whitney U-test was implored to investigate the disparity between the respondents’ assessments of technical and managerial competencies. Based on a U-value of 7.500 and an exact significance (2-tailed) value of 0.352, it can be concluded that the difference is not significant at the 5% level.

In order to determine the difference in the appraisal of both technical competencies and managerial competencies based on occupation of the respondents, two Kruskal–Wallis H-tests were carried out at 0.05 significance level as shown in Table 4, one with the mean of the technical competencies as the dependent variable and the other with the mean of the managerial competencies as the dependent variable. These tests were carried out with the professions (Engineers, Architects and Builders) as independent variables.

Table 4 Kruskal Wallis test of difference in technical and managerial competencies for application of digital technologies in PPP projects
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For the first test, to evaluate the differences across the three professions for appraisal of the technical competencies, the following null hypothesis was put up:

H1: The importance of technical competencies in the application of digital technologies to PPP projects is the same across all professions

The test examined whether there were statistically significant differences in mean rating of technical competencies among various professionals. The mean ranks of the technical competencies rating were 81.20 for engineers, 77.99 for architects, and 71.43 for builders. Results of the Kruskal–Wallis H Test indicated that there was no statistically significant difference in mean ratings for technical competencies across the various professions, H (2) = 0.636, p = 0.728. This suggests that the profession does not significantly impact the technical competencies required for the application of digital technologies in management of PPP projects.

For the second test, to evaluate the differences across the three professions for appraisal of the managerial competencies, the following null hypothesis was put up:

H2: The importance of managerial competencies in the application of digital technologies to PPP projects is the same across all professions

The test examined whether there were statistically significant differences in mean rating of managerial competencies among various professionals. The mean ranks of the managerial competencies rating were 77.31 for engineers, 89.70 for architects, and 65.79 for builders. Results of the Kruskal–Wallis H Test indicated that there was no statistically significant difference in mean ratings for managerial competencies across the various professions, H (2) = 3.582, p = 0.167. This suggests that the profession does not significantly impact the managerial competencies required for application of digital technologies in PPP projects.

4.1.3 Influence of company size on adoption of the critical competencies

In order to determine the level of influence of company size on the perception of the critical competencies for application of digital technologies in PPP projects by the respondents, a hypothesis was developed thus:

H3: There is a significant impact of company size on the perception of the critical competencies by the respondents.

The hypothesis tests if the size of the company of the respondents has a significant impact on their perception of the critical competencies for application of digital technologies in PPP projects. The dependent variable (Perception of Critical Competencies) was regressed on the predicting variable (Company Size) to test the hypothesis H3. The company size did not significantly predict the perception of critical competencies by the respondents (R2 = 0.023, F (1,153) = 3.641, p = 0.058) as shown in Table 5.

Table 5 Regression of company size against perception of critical competencies
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4.2 Discussion

The study identified and examined the critical competencies for effective integration of digital technologies in managing PPP projects. Eighteen (18) competencies were identified during the literature review and were subjected to further analysis to determine the critical skills. The Mean Item Score and Relative Importance Index were computed and used to rank the competencies. The result as shown in Table 2 indicates that all ten (10) competencies are considered relevant for the application of digital technologies in PPP project management with all the variables passing the agreement mark of 4.0. Despite a general agreement to all the competencies, construction professionals also had varying levels of agreement [13]. The most prominent competencies identified were continuous learning and keeping up with technological advancement, project planning and organizational skills, and proficiency in digital construction management tools [38]. The dynamic nature of the construction technology landscape necessitates a constant hunger for knowledge and the ability to seamlessly adapt to emerging advancements [46]. The result also shows the need for meticulous project planning and organization skills for managing complex digital construction projects. The importance of proficiency in digital tools is also very critical for construction professionals to effectively manage projects in a high digital demand industry [47].

Furthermore, the results from Table 2 showed a slight indication that managerial competencies have higher importance based on the mean rating of the groups of technical and managerial competencies. This indication was subjected to further tests using the Mann–Whitney U-test which revealed nearly equal importance of both technical and managerial competencies in application of digital technologies in PPP projects. This finding emphasizes the importance of managerial competencies alongside technical competencies when training construction professionals [12]. Other important competencies among the critical competencies include adaptability to new technologies, ability to analyze and interpret construction data generated by digital technology systems systems, familiarity with industry-specific standards and regulations, time management skills, problem-solving skills, collaboration skills, and effective communication skills.

The study went ahead to test the hypothesis: ‘the importance of technical competencies in application of digital technologies in PPP projects is the same across all professions’. The result showed that there were no significant differences in the perceived importance of the top technical competencies across the respective professions. Builders showed an indication of possible difference in perception with a mean rank of 71.43 but not statistically significant enough to declare a difference in the perceived importance of technical competencies as the mean rank of engineers and architects showed similar values as outlined in Table 4. Another hypothesis: ‘the importance of managerial competencies in application of digital technologies in PPP projects is the same across all professions’ was tested. The result also showed that there were no significant differences in the perceived importance of the managerial competencies across the respective professions. Builders showed an indication of possible difference in perception with a mean rank of 65.79 but not statistically significant enough to declare a difference in the perceived importance of managerial competencies as the mean rank of engineers and architects showed similar values as outlined in Table 4. All three professions displayed a similar pattern in their responses to both technical and managerial competencies. This high level of agreement signifies the general applicability of the identified critical competencies across various construction professions [48].

The study also explored potential variations in competency appraisal based on company size. The analysis revealed no statistically significant disparities in the responses from companies of varying sizes. This finding suggests that all the identified critical competencies hold relatively equal importance for construction companies irrespective of their size [47].

4.2.1 Implications of the study

The findings of this study have several important implications for the construction industry and its stakeholders. Firstly, the study highlights the need for comprehensive training and development programs that focus on both technical and managerial competencies. Government institutions, industry bodies, and educational institutions should collaborate to design and implement training programs that ensure professionals are well-prepared to manage PPP projects in the digital era. Additionally, the study suggests that industry standards and policies should be updated to reflect the critical competencies identified for digital technology integration. This could involve revising existing guidelines or creating new ones that emphasize the importance of a balanced skillset. Educational institutions offering programs in engineering, architecture, and construction management could also benefit from incorporating these competencies into their curricula, thereby better preparing graduates for the evolving demands of the industry. On an organizational level, construction companies involved in PPP projects can use the insights from this study to inform their strategic planning, placing a strong emphasis on developing a workforce capable of leveraging digital technologies for improved project outcomes.

5 Conclusions

It is important that PPP projects stakeholders and construction professionals recognize, promote, and acquire the critical competencies for efficient integration of digital technologies into the management of PPP projects. A meticulously designed research survey targeting construction professionals revealed a convincing outline of competencies that are crucial for navigating the integration of digital technologies in the management of PPP projects. While managerial competencies like project planning and communication appeared slightly more significant, the overall disparity between the two categories of technical and managerial competencies remained statistically insignificant. This stresses the need for an encompassing and well-rounded skill set harnessing both technical proficiency and strong managerial capabilities. The research also discovered a remarkable consistency in the perception of these competencies across various professional groups, including engineers, architects, and builders. The universality highlights the general applicability of these critical competencies across different professions. Government institutions and advocacy groups could take advantage of these findings to curate training programs targeted at professionals handling PPP infrastructure projects, equipping them with the necessary skill set for proper application of digital technologies in PPP projects. This study goes beyond identifying critical competencies to providing valuable insights for stakeholders within the construction industry. Construction companies of all sizes can take advantage of the many advantages of digital technologies, such as increased productivity, better profitability, and better project results, by emphasizing the development of these competencies and embracing digital transformation. The study presents several limitations that must be acknowledged. First, the research was conducted with a specific group of construction professionals, potentially limited to certain regions or countries, which may affect the generalizability of the findings to a broader global context where practices in PPP project management and digital technology integration may differ. Additionally, the reliance on self-reported surveys introduces the possibility of bias, as participants might have either overestimated or underestimated their competencies, leading to potential inaccuracies in the data.

Future research could take several directions to build on the findings of this study. A longitudinal approach could be adopted to explore how the identified competencies evolve over time and how they impact the success of digital technology integration in PPP projects, providing deeper insights into the long-term effects of competency development. Additionally, further research could investigate other contextual factors, such as organizational culture, leadership, regulatory frameworks, and resource availability, which may influence the integration of digital technologies in PPP projects. A comparative analysis across different regions or countries could also be conducted to explore how regional differences affect the critical competencies needed for PPP project management, thereby enhancing the generalizability of the findings.