1 Introduction

Volunteerism is a personal investment made by individuals who choose to spend their time and effort rendering services to the community or helping the less fortunate without expecting any reward in return [1, 2]. Volunteer activities have a pivotal role in solving various societal problems [3].

Understanding the attitudes of youth who have volunteer experience towards voluntary activities is crucial. The attitude of this section of society can make a huge outcome-focused difference, either in favor of or against this humane activity [4]. Working with youth to develop a sense of care and responsibility will undoubtedly and immensely help reap valuable fruits in the field of volunteerism [5]. Understanding their attitudes enhances or even solely determines the way to fruitfully energize youth, specifically students’ involvement in volunteerism [6].

In developing countries, the number of individuals participating in and providing such services is insignificant compared to developed countries [7]. This lack of participation could be due to misperception and a negative attitude towards the subject matter. Numerous government agencies and non-government organizations (NGOs) have put considerable effort into promoting volunteerism [8]. Nevertheless, a considerable segment of the population still has little awareness about volunteer activities, particularly in developing regions [3]. With free will and active participation in volunteering, individuals can be empowered with the confidence, skills, and knowledge necessary to effect change in their respective communities [9].

Ethiopia is not an exception to this pragmatic situation. Providing any sort of voluntary activity is unusual here [10]. This may not necessarily be due to a bad attitude developed against volunteerism, but rather a lack of awareness about the fruits of volunteerism or other reasons [11]. This demonstrates the importance of instilling the concept of volunteerism in youth, as they are its decisive and indispensable source. Accordingly, they may volunteer zealously and with great conviction [11]. In Ethiopia and throughout Africa, volunteerism takes on diverse expressions, spanning community development endeavors, initiatives in social welfare, efforts toward environmental preservation, and projects aimed at humanitarian aid. Motivated by a profound sense of obligation, empathy, and unity, volunteers assume crucial positions in confronting socio-economic obstacles, encompassing the mitigation of poverty, the enhancement of healthcare access, the facilitation of education delivery, and the advancement of sustainable development goals. Nonetheless, volunteerism encounters obstacles in Ethiopia and analogous African nations, including Kenya, Nigeria, South Africa, Rwanda, and Ghana, such as deficient institutional backing, insufficient resources, and socio-political limitations. Furthermore, access to volunteering endeavors may be unequal, with specific demographics encountering impediments rooted in gender, age, educational attainment, or socio-economic standing.

Amare [12] conducted a study in Ethiopia on volunteerism in organizational settings, particularly NGOs, which are found in the city of Addis Ababa. The former study focused on the roles and significant contributions of volunteers in community development and the factors that motivate them to participate in livelihood improvement for vulnerable Ethiopia (LIVE), an Addis Ethiopian resident charity. The latter study aimed to investigate the legal, institutional, and sociocultural context in which volunteerism is being practiced and tried to assess the development programs of volunteer-involving organizations in terms of their level of alignment with those of government development priority areas. Another study, conducted by Burns et al. [13], revealed a significant gender difference in volunteerism; females were more altruistic than males in this study. It also showed that as age increases, engagement in volunteerism increases. Moreover, students who scored high on religiosity also scored high on altruism [13]. Regarding the influence of sex on pro-social attitudes, Tafetu [14] demonstrated a notable mean difference between male and female students. The study revealed that female students exhibited higher levels of pro-social attitudes compared to their male counterparts.

Here at the University of Gondar, Ethiopia, we have noticed that the provision of voluntary activities and creating awareness about volunteerism have been neglected, despite the potential source of volunteer power that remains unused and no tangible voluntary activities being performed. In other words, we rarely see the provision of self-motivated activities compared to how it could be if attitude-building work were officially done. Although some voluntary activities, such as voluntary blood donation, are still performed, this cannot be taken as the full utilization of the potentially existing opportunity for volunteerism. This could be a problem connected to the attitude of students.

This study attempted to integrate the self-determination theory of Ng et al. [15] and distinguish between two specific styles of motivation, intrinsic and extrinsic, which are in line with the purpose of our study. Moreover, the study is also based on Clary et al. [16] to navigate the motivation and attitude of students toward volunteerism. This theory has a well-founded theoretical basis and psychological properties to assess multiple volunteer settings. They characterized intrinsic motivation as doing something because it is inherently exciting or interesting and extrinsic motivation as doing something because it leads to a separable outcome. Hence, altruistic reasons for charitable donations would be an intrinsic motivator, while strategic reasons for charitable donations would be an extrinsic motivator [9]. As stated above, the nature of the attitude that students hold towards volunteerism matters. Most importantly, no previous study has been conducted on this matter.

In comparison to other countries, the volunteer gap analysis conducted at Ethiopia/Gondar University is unique because it focuses on the specific needs of the local community. The analysis takes into account the cultural, economic, and social factors that affect the demand for volunteering in Ethiopia. For instance, Ethiopia is a developing country with a high poverty rate, which means that the demand for volunteers in social welfare is higher than in other countries with a different economic situation. Moreover, the volunteer gap analysis conducted at Ethiopia/Gondar University is relevant because it identifies the skills required for effective volunteering. The analysis identifies the specific skills needed in different sectors, such as health, education, and social welfare, among others. This information is critical because it helps to match volunteers with the appropriate sectors based on their skills and interests. Additionally, the volunteer gap analysis conducted at Ethiopia/Gondar University helps to enhance the relevance of volunteering in Ethiopia by identifying the areas where volunteers are needed the most. It also helps to promote a culture of volunteerism by raising awareness of the importance of volunteering and the benefits it brings to the community. Overall, the volunteer gap analysis conducted at Ethiopia/Gondar University is a vital tool for enhancing the relevance of volunteering in Ethiopia. By identifying the specific needs of the local community and the skills required for effective volunteering, the analysis helps to ensure that volunteers make a meaningful impact in the areas where they are needed the most.

Therefore, this issue is perfectly worthy of an intensive investigation to determine the attitudes of students and provide operational recommendations to alleviate the problem and reap the benefits of volunteerism. The general objective of the study was to assess the motivation and engagement of student volunteers in volunteerism at the University of Gondar. The specific objectives of this study are as follows: to examine the motivational factors that drive students to engage in volunteerism, to identify the areas of voluntary engagement being done by student volunteers, and to describe the benefits gained from volunteering for student volunteers.

1.1 The rationale of the study

Students are the driving force behind any societal change or development, as they contribute not only to their studies but also by volunteering throughout their university years and performing various tasks within the community [17].

While volunteer students participate in both winter and summer programs, the volunteer program and participation remain ineffective. Moreover, the contribution of volunteerism to development in general and youth volunteerism, in particular, has not been given much emphasis or institutionalized.

To harness the enormous potential of volunteerism, creating a solid foundation or favorable environment that empowers and positively impacts youth situations or satisfies their needs while engaging in volunteerism and sustaining their participation is necessary. Additionally, effectively and sustainably adjusting youth volunteerism programs requires considering the best alternatives for the active involvement of youth on a large scale, making it a paramount option.

To expand volunteer programs to the next level of contribution to local development, it is essential to understand volunteers' attitudes, perceptions, benefits, motivations, and barriers towards volunteerism. In general, paying attention to students' attitudes and perceptions of volunteerism has a significant impact on maximizing their potential and, in particular, carrying out volunteer service in the right direction to benefit the community.This paper focuses on volunteerism at the University of Gondar, Ethiopia, assessing the actual participation of students and their understanding of the benefits of volunteerism. This research focused on the University of Gondar's five campuses: Maraki, Tewodros, Fasil, Tseda, and the Health Science College. Additionally, the study evaluates students' determination and frequency of participation in volunteer activities. The study further contributes by providing tips for possible solutions that could enhance students’ perception of the volunteering environment at the university. The study aims to address these research questions:

  1. 1.

    What are the motivating factors and possible hindrances to students' participation in volunteering activities?

  2. 2.

    What are the benefits of student volunteering?

  3. 3.

    What areas of voluntary engagement are being undertaken by student volunteers?

2 Literature review

This section highlights previously studied documents in line with the specific objectives of the study. Different authors have defined volunteerism and related terms in various ways. Volunteerism is defined as voluntary, ongoing, and planned help that increases the well-being of strangers and provides no monetary compensation. It typically occurs within an organizational and community context [18].

Volunteerism is also defined as activities of general interest that promote intercultural understanding and solidarity, are of a social or humanitarian nature, have no professional character, and are developed within the framework of non-profit, non-governmental organizations [19]. They do not substitute for professional, paid labor, and are non-paid except for eventual expenses [19]. Volunteering is defined as the act of giving with no expectation of return. The term "voluntary activity" or "volunteerism" is defined in this research and elsewhere as any sort of activity that students can conduct for free and without payment both inside and outside of the institution [20]. Therefore, regardless of whether the term "voluntary action" or "volunteerism" is used, the reader should consider this fact. Student volunteering is an important component of student participation that may be promoted at the university level. According to Joseph & Carolissen [21], students who actively participate in volunteering activities typically see gains in their academic performance and retention rates. These extracurricular activities support what students learn in class and apply theoretical knowledge to real-world applications, helping them better grasp various disciplines.

Student engagement is a mutually beneficial collaboration between universities, staff, students, and the community, based on research from various Australian and international academic and practical sources [22, 23]. Organizations that facilitate active student learning through beneficial participation in a range of activities help students make a positive commitment to their education by learning leadership knowledge, values, and awareness, and making a difference in their society. Therefore, universities would do well to emphasize and facilitate the development and sustainability of student engagement initiatives as a key part of their modus operandi for several reasons. Student participation is a worthwhile endeavor for university students as it relates positively and holistically to academic, university, and group interactions [24, 25]. Active and motivated participation in the enriching experiences provided by student engagement plays an important role in students' personal, educational, and social development [25]. It has been argued that there is variation between these five countries regarding the role of service learning within university education; for example, service learning is more integrated in the United States and Canada than in the United Kingdom [26].

Tertiary and university education are identified as contexts in which people learn and adapt attitudes, conversation, decision-making, and other higher-level social skills and knowledge that endow them with thinking, duty, obligation, and caring citizenship [16, 27]. High-quality academic opportunities and experiences are increasingly being used as a valuable marker for student quality of life and university preference in comparison with pure academic and research output [28, 29]. Exploiting the positive correlation and synergies between academic performance and student engagement would greatly benefit universities [29]. The notion of engagement has been developed by Capri et al. [30]. In this tradition, engagement refers to a state of mind that is positive, fulfilling, and work-related, characterized by employing vigor, determination, and absorption [30]. Given these unprecedented times, countries in North America, Europe, and Asia have imposed measures for social distancing to limit COVID-19’s spread. These social distancing measures have created negative impacts on leisure activities, including recreation, sport, parks, travel, and tourism. Beyond these leisure activities, one particular activity inherently linked with other leisure-based activities that has also been negatively impacted by COVID-19 is traditional volunteering [29, 31].

Research has highly emphasized that purposeful benefits are the primary motivation for individuals to do volunteer work. However, many volunteers are also motivated by organizational factors (solitary benefits) and the extent of autonomy they have. As such, the provision of psychological empowerment can also be perceived as a solitary benefit. When volunteers receive this gain, they may be willing to reciprocate through engagement in various areas of volunteering.

The second theory of voluntary engagement is the self-determination theory, which describes the behavior of an individual and the underlying motivation behind their behavior [15]. In this regard, Capri et al. [30] identified two kinds of motivation: extrinsic and intrinsic motivation. The former plays a role in behavior but is not exciting to the individual, while the latter is propelled by human beings' interest in the activity itself. As such, volunteers commonly depend on intrinsic motivation to encourage themselves to volunteer. Intrinsic motivation cannot be increased by rewards or different extrinsic factors, in contrast to extrinsic motivation. The only way to stimulate intrinsic motivation is through the achievement of basic psychological needs such as competence and autonomy.

The idea of giving of oneself for the benefit of others has its origins in early African associational lifestyles, which had a strong normative and moral foundation. Traditional cultural ideals and practices encouraged collective responsibility, team spirit, and reciprocity. These ideas have been essential in expressing an individual's humanity through their social relations with others, an idea that was crucial to the social cohesion of pre-colonial societies that relied on mutual assistance, parentage, and community support to meet human needs [16].

There is a scarcity of research studies on volunteerism in the context of the Ethiopian educational system, particularly in universities. Research conducted by Dhofar University on students' attitudes toward volunteerism found that students participated in volunteer activities for the sake of their spiritual beliefs, promoting national affiliation, being vital to assist others, filling spare time, and serving the community. Serving the community was the most important motivation for students to participate in volunteer activities. The findings of the study conducted by Tafetu [14] have additionally shown that a high level of belief in volunteering activities can inspire not only friends and family but also students themselves to take part in similar activities.

Numerous studies have shown a significant relationship between religious involvement and volunteerism [15, 32]. A recent Gallup poll showed that churches were the leading provider of volunteers, outnumbering colleges and universities and other civil society organizations [33]. In another study, adults who attended religious services weekly reported more than twice as many volunteer hours as those not attending church [32]. There are several possible, but not mutually exclusive, factors. Firstly, religious engagement may change the nature or priority of people's motives [30, 34]. For example, religion may promote altruism or encourage people to value caring for others more. Alternatively, the role of religion could be educational, sensitizing people to social issues they would not otherwise be focused on. Alternatively, religious activities could put people in contact with others who are likely to be involved in volunteer work, and the association draws them in as well. That is, if people join a congregation that promotes volunteerism, they are more likely to volunteer themselves [14, 35].

Parental involvement may also encourage students' involvement in volunteer programs. Several previous sociologists could not regard these reasons as predispositions. Instead, they could deal with motives as constitutive of actions, as part of a discourse giving meaning to and supporting the shaping of behavior [32, 36].

Another study on the role of volunteers in the community conducted in Addis Ababa revealed that the primary motivating factors were the desire to help organizations and communities enhance their capacities and potential to ensure the common good [37]. Current notions of volunteering often involve extra project-oriented and specific expectations in terms of the form, timing, and content of volunteer involvement [37, 38]. The role of the university is also a crucial motivating factor. Across the world, young people were observed to be much more likely to volunteer when their educational institution emphasizes and promotes the significance of social participation [39]. Strong links with family, friends, religious organizations, and schools predict student voluntarism [37, 40].

Although several studies have been conducted concerning volunteerism in Ethiopia and other developing countries, the motivational factors that drive students to engage in volunteerism, the areas of voluntary engagement being done by student volunteers, and the benefits gained from volunteering have received little emphasis. However, this study attempted to fill the gap through the stated objectives above.

3 Methods

3.1 Research design

This study used a cross-sectional study design from January to April 2020. A mixed-methods approach was used to integrate the fundamental philosophical realms of both quantitative (positivism/ontology) and qualitative (constructivism) domains [41]. The rationale to use a mixed research approach was to address questions that require holistic understanding and to give flexibility to the researcher to promote the study's rigor and robustness [41, 42]. The qualitative approach used the constructivism approach to explore the areas of engagement and benefits of participating in volunteering, while the ontological philosophical orientation in the quantitative approach was used to calculate and explain the array of mean motivations and factors behind voluntary engagement [43]. The qualitative approach here helps the researchers' find valuable insights about the livelihood experience, volunteer engagement, and deeper understanding of social processes for social intervention. Quantitative data was collected through survey questionnaires, while qualitative data was collected through in-depth and key-informant interviews to corroborate and interlink with the quantitative data [42].

3.2 Study areas and participants

This research focused on the University of Gondar's five campuses: Maraki, Tewodros, Fasil, Tseda, and the Health Science College. The University of Gondar is one of Ethiopia's higher education institutions, with 32,400 students enrolled in regular, evening, and extension programs [44]. The main reason for selecting this area is that it is easier for the researchers to find a representative sample for the research and that it is the most accessible place to conduct the research with limited resources like time and money. The study focuses on assessing the University of Gondar volunteer students’s motivation and engagement toward voluntary activities.

3.3 Sampling techniques

This study used both probability and non-probability sampling techniques. Purposive sampling was employed for the non-probable sampling techniques, specifically for the selection of key informants and participants in focus group discussions. The study used a mixed research approach; however, the qualitative data were gathered through purposive sampling techniques, which helped the researchers' obtain people with experience concerning the research question under the study [45]. Purposive sampling was done to avoid bias among student volunteers, and participants were selected based on their knowledge of the research question and their involvement in volunteer activities at the University of Gondar. The key informants included members of the community service directorate, the student union, the club president, and other relevant bodies who were representatives and facilitators of students' activities within the university. For the survey, proportional stratified sampling was used to ensure proportional representation of students from each college at the University of Gondar, and simple random sampling was applied to each stratum to avoid bias. Proportional stratified sampling aids in mitigating selection bias by guaranteeing that every subgroup of student volunteers is equally likely to be sampled. Through the systematic selection of participants from each stratum, researchers can diminish the likelihood of certain groups being overrepresented or underrepresented, thereby mitigating the potential for biased conclusions. The sample size for the quantitative data was determined using the single population proportion formula, with a total sample of 422 participants, assuming a 95% confidence interval, p = 0.5, a standard error of 0.05, and a 15% non-response rate.

3.4 Data collection tools

This study utilized both primary and secondary sources of data. Secondary data were obtained by reviewing various studies related to the topic to identify the different issues that motivate people to participate in volunteerism. The researchers critically reviewed theoretical frameworks and sociological explanations concerning volunteerism. The researchers also examined written documents such as journals, articles, and archival documents that focus on volunteerism in the world, Africa, and Ethiopia in particular. Primary data, on the other hand, were collected using both quantitative (survey questionnaires) and qualitative (key informant interviews and focus group discussions) methods to address specific research objectives. The primary data collection tools used in this study were briefly explained as follows:

The quantitative data was collected through a structured questionnaire that included both closed-ended and open-ended questions to measure volunteer students' motivation and engagement in volunteering, using the standard Voluntary Function Inventory (VFI) survey questionnaire [46]. The VFI used in this study was developed by Clary et al. [16], and the analysis was based on the original 30 items, with means computed for each item. To enhance the accuracy of the items in the VFI to align with the construct being measured, the researchers conducted a comprehensive examination of existing literature and sought guidance from knowledgeable professionals in the domain of volunteerism. The questionnaire was distributed to 422 participants, with a response rate of 99%.

This study used focus group discussions (FGDs) and key informant interviews as means of data collection. Two FGDs with eight individuals were conducted in at least one extracurricular activity at the University of Gondar, and two FGDs had a duration of 50 min each [8]. The participants' willingness to participate was confirmed before the discussions, and only students from the University of Gondar were included in the study.

The key informant interviews aimed to identify individuals who could provide crucial information about individuals, groups, and social relations related to volunteerism within the research setting [47]. The 12 key informants included stakeholders such as members of the community service directorate, the student union, club and association presidents, and other relevant bodies. All participants were selected through purposive sampling based on their knowledge of the issues related to the study, and the interviews had a duration of 25 min each. As traced by Guest et al. [48], the key informant interview and FGD guiding questions were designed through the following steps: (1) Precisely establish research objectives; (2) employ open-ended and probing questions; (3) refrain from using biased or threatening language; (4) ensure contextual relevance; (5) maintain a logical sequence; (6) avoid questions with multiple purposes; (7) pilot test the questions; and (8) factor in ethical considerations. Besides, the participants were asked about the issues first as a pilot study to design the guiding questions.

3.5 Data collection procedure

Before the actual data collection, a pre-test was conducted with five participants to determine the suitability and appropriateness of the items to be included in the research and to ensure language clarity. The study was approved and reviewed by the University of Gondar IRB under the following numbers: 212/12/SSHR/UOG. Prior to data collection, participants were asked for their full willingness to participate in the study, and informed consent written by the University of Gondar was provided by the researchers. To ensure data credibility and reliability, the researchers explained the study's purpose and relevance to the participants. The participants were informed of their right to withdraw from the data collection process at any time and of the strict confidentiality protection of their privacy and the information they provided. The data was collected from the targeted respondents, and after willing participants agreed, they signed informed consent.

3.6 Data analysis

Proper arrangement and analysis of data have been made in order to have meaning. The collected quantitative data were first classified, coded, and entered into SPSS version 23 before being analyzed. SPSS was used to calculate frequencies, percentages, and mean scores across the five selected campuses of the University of Gondar and to compare responses for the total sample. Descriptive statistics, such as means and standard deviations, were computed for the six subscales of the VFI. The analyzed data collected from the questionnaires was then triangulated with responses from key informant interviews and focus group discussions. Thematic analysis was used to analyze the qualitative data obtained from the key informant interviews and focus group discussions. After transcribing and immersing the raw data in IC recorders, categories and themes were identified by reading transcripts and analyzing notes, and the data were rearranged according to the appropriate thematic framework manually. Themes were integrated with quantitative data based on similarity. Data triangulation was carried out to integrate the quantitative and qualitative data to achieve the study's ultimate objective.

4 Results of the study

In this section, the specific findings of the data gathered through the questionnaires, key informant interviews, and focus group discussions will be presented. Through the use of a mixed research approach, the study attempted to answer the following objectives: (1) the motivating factors for and possible hindrances to students' actual participation in volunteering activities; (2) the benefits of student volunteering; and (3) the areas of voluntary engagement being done by student volunteers. The findings are organized under major topics, as presented in this chapter. The study's reliability was checked through reliability measurement tests, such as Cronbach's alpha. Accordingly, the study's Cronbach's alpha was 0.734, which is acceptable and above the minimum statistical level for acceptance. As a rule of thumb, the Cronbach alpha should be between 0 and 1. The study's reliability becomes very acceptable and good when it scores above 0.7 and 1.0 [49].

Moreover, the demographic profile of the respondents showed that 58% were females and 42% were males. This implies that females at the study site showed more interest in volunteerism than their male counterparts. The majority of respondents were over the age of 23, with 24% being 23, 22% being 22, and 19% being 21, while 9% and 8% were 25 and 20, respectively. This implies that most of the students under the age of 25 could develop a sense of volunteerism. The religious affiliation of the respondents was 46% Orthodox, 24% Islam, 23% Protestant, and 7% Catholic. The majority of respondents were urban residents (55%), and the remaining 45% were rural residents. The majority of respondents were third-year students (50%), with the highest percentage of respondents majoring in sociology (23%), followed by management (16%) and social work (12%). The findings suggest that there is a higher interest in volunteerism among third-year students majoring in sociology, management, and social work. Additionally, the respondents are divided between urban and rural residents, potentially impacting their access to volunteer opportunities.

4.1 The motivation for student volunteering

In this study, the volunteer function inventory (VFI) developed by Clary et al. (1998) was employed to examine the motivation of volunteer students. The original 30 items were used in the analysis, and means were computed for each item.

Regarding the motivational factors for student volunteering, Key Informant #1 in the study argued that the main reason behind voluntary engagement was the desire to help marginalized people in society who are helpless. He emphasized that volunteering gives mental satisfaction and that doing the right thing for others while living can lead to a good response in a bad situation. Therefore, volunteering is a noble activity that everyone should do for others who need help. He also stated that volunteers were heavily influenced by utilitarian reasons or resume-building.

Under focus group discussion #1, students who had volunteered provided responses to their motivations for volunteering now and in the past year. The responses regarding the reasons why students volunteered were analyzed. Students' motivation to volunteer stemmed from a desire to help others whom they perceived as less fortunate than themselves, to make others feel better by spending time with them (e.g., "the elderly"), and to give back to either their own or another community.

Regarding intrinsic motivation, the participants in the study stated that the main internal motives behind their involvement in voluntary activities were altruism, self-satisfaction or spiritual satisfaction, and the need for involvement. They mentioned that the pleasure of getting involved, offering their abilities to others, the fact that with their help they can make others smile, the pleasure of working with people, and the fact that they play a part in changing the community they live in are all important aspects when deciding to be a volunteer. The desire for personal development and the channeling of energies to help others were also among the motives that made them actively involved.

The majority of participants also spoke about the importance of extrinsic motivation and external motivational factors: the experience and skills acquired, the fact that volunteering may be considered as work experience, the possibility to meet people with similar interests, building contacts with other volunteers, the results of their work or the progress of the beneficiaries, the feedback received from the beneficiaries of the programs, and the image of the volunteer within the community. The respondents mentioned the following personal benefits of voluntary activities: personality development, moral satisfaction, acquired skills, personal image, and relationships with others (Table 1).

Table 1 The average mean of volunteer motivation, n = 418
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4.2 Areas of student voluntary engagement

Students volunteer in a variety of areas, and people are the major beneficiaries of their volunteering activities (Table 2). Almost half (47%) of all student volunteers were involved in social and disability matters, and 32% volunteered in education and academic matters, such as helping students who were academically underachieving. The remaining 13% of student volunteers participated in humanitarian and health services. In terms of academic affairs in student volunteering, they provided and assisted with tutorial services for freshmen and academically low-achieving students on campus, and assisted physically and visually impaired students on campus.

Table 2 Areas for student volunteering, n = 418
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Regarding the various areas of voluntary engagement by volunteer students, Key Informant #2 in the study elaborated on the available voluntary associations on campus and their areas of emphasis in volunteering, as follows:

‘There are various volunteer associations at the Maraki campus, including the People with Disabilities Association, Ken Deal, Addis Hiwot, and the Sociology Students' Association, which are engaged in different areas of volunteering. Volunteering students participate in a variety of voluntary activities, such as addressing environmental issues, volunteering on campus, and collecting money and discounted clothing for those living on the street through door-to-door engagements. Additionally, it was mentioned that their volunteer organization provides or assists with free educational services for six children whose parents are unable to educate them’.

Table 3 shows that 37% of volunteers engaged in volunteering two to three times per week, followed by 24% volunteering once per month. 23% of the participants were participating in various volunteer activities, ranging from two to three times per month.

Table 3 Frequency of student volunteering, n = 418
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To support the above scenario, Key Informant Interview #3 provided additional insights to the above data as follows:

‘I have participated in various volunteer activities, including assisting people with disabilities and helping elderly and orphaned children. I volunteer two or three times per week. As an individual and as a sociology student, I have participated in various areas of volunteering, such as helping less privileged students and planting trees through our association (interview, 2020)’.

Data from FGD #2 reveals that participants have been active as volunteers in the following areas: social affairs, education affairs, environmental affairs, art, and humanitarian affairs. The categories of beneficiaries that volunteer students worked with include disabled children and youth, children in need, children from disadvantaged backgrounds, and older people. According to the respondents, the positive aspects of their involvement in volunteering activities were the acquisition of knowledge and skills, spiritual satisfaction, personal development, and utilizing free time in a useful way. They also mentioned the agreements they signed as volunteers, the development of teamwork and communication skills, understanding the needs of others, and discovering their abilities and interests.

4.3 The desire to help marginalized segments of people in society

The theme of giving back to society by helping others was identified as significant throughout the research. Many participants referred to the results they achieved through the support and help they provided to those in need of assistance and attention. The sense of satisfaction felt by lending a helping hand and raising awareness of serious social problems that require attention in society was mentioned as a major motivator for student volunteering. Both in-depth and key informant interview participants agreed that the need to help the community is one of the motivating factors that encourages volunteers to get involved in voluntary activities.

One of the respondents (#4) explained her motivation in the following way:

‘She volunteers to help people seeking assistance without expecting any reward. She finds moral satisfaction in volunteering and believes it brings blessings from God. She previously volunteered in high school and now participates in university organizations like Addis Hiwot and Sociology Charity Clubs. Through Addis Hiwot, she visits and helps elderly and orphaned children on the street twice a week. She also assists physically disabled and visually impaired students on campus. Her Sociology major emphasizes volunteering, voluntary service, and helping the elderly, women, and orphaned children on the street. Her studies highly influence her desire to assist those in need (interviewee, 2020)’.

The motivation for helping others in society is closely related to participants' tendency to give back to their local community. Students were motivated to volunteer because they felt a sense of pride and responsibility to help people in their community who needed assistance. Key Informant #5 stated the following:

"I have had the opportunity to interact with people who are a lot less fortunate than I am, and it allows me to give back to society, particularly to the community I grew up in and benefited so much from."

In response to the informant's question, "Who is the most active volunteer in your volunteer organization?" Key Informant #6 responded:

‘He stated that women are more open to volunteering in both associations—the Sociology Student Association and the Addis Hiwot Charity Association. In terms of the year of study, second-year and above students are more likely to volunteer in our association to seek certificates. The satisfaction that students get from helping others is what drives them. He added that being a person in need of other people's help (being physically disabled) and now being a volunteer striving to help others who need his help is another motivational factor’.

These factors, which influence the reasons why students become involved in volunteering, highlight the importance of volunteering in society. The opportunity to make a decisive and clear impact on the lives of others who are less fortunate was recognized as a significant motivation for the student participants.

4.4 Opportunity to develop new skills and qualities

The research results demonstrate the importance of helping others as a significant motivational factor for student volunteering. The research also identified certain volunteering traits resulting from personal motives, such as the possibility of learning new skills and values. Several interviewees emphasized the importance of skill development and mentioned that volunteering offered an opportunity to develop and learn new skills and qualities. They hoped that the skills they had developed before and now would enhance their happiness and assist them in their day-to-day routine activities. Key Informant Interview #7 stated:

‘I am a sociology student who volunteers at the Maraki campus. I previously volunteered in high school and was inspired by my friends and teachers to join the Addis Hiwot Charity Association. Later, I and other sociology students formed an association to assist one another in various volunteer areas. My religion teaches me that helping others is a moral obligation, and my praying and fasting towards my creator, God, contributes to my volunteering efforts. Studying sociology emphasizes helping marginalized populations, such as the elderly, orphan children, and women in need (interview, 2020)’.

Similarly, in Key Informant Interview #8 stated:

‘Volunteering provides me with the opportunity to learn new things while assisting those in need. It allows me to develop new skills and qualities, making me a better person. The interviewee shared how they learned many new skills from their sister through a previous volunteer program. They usually let their younger sister choose the volunteer activities, as she has a strong enthusiasm for volunteering. Initially, the interviewee did not share the same passion, but after volunteering with their sister, they discovered a newfound passion for it (interview, 2020)’.

Similarly, Participant #9 added how she has developed her communication skills while volunteering with an elderly lady every week, "I have improved my communication skills because I have repeatedly visited those in need. So, there are a lot of things I have learned, and I have developed my skills to understand the different ways of interacting and relating with my friends."

4.5 Increased mental satisfaction and pleasure as a benefit of voluntarism

The interviews produced data that emphasized the importance of students feeling a sense of mental satisfaction and happiness from the volunteer work they completed. A sense of achievement resulting from making a positive impact was a key benefit for the research participants. The students recognized a strong link between their volunteer experience and increased health and happiness in their lives.

Key informant interview #10 shared her insights on the matter, as described below:

‘I am a social science student serving as a volunteer at the Addis Hiwot charity association. For me, volunteering is an activity that involves giving and helping other people who have severe economic and social problems. I did have previous volunteer experience in my earlier grades and now volunteer at Addis Hiwot and Kalen Benakafil charity associations. And now I volunteer in a variety of areas, including environmental affairs (cleaning the environment and planting trees) and social affairs (assisting academically underperforming students and assisting disabled students on and off campus). I am a regular volunteer, serving more than two to three times per week, and I have had more than four years of volunteer experience at the Addis Hiwot Charity Association and Women's Affairs. The main motivation that attracted me here is the desire to help other people first and get a certificate second. Volunteering gives me moral satisfaction when I am helping those in need. Help the thirsty and hungry man, as the Bible says. I have decided to help other people. The opportunity to offer my skills to help others in the community is extremely satisfying. I suppose I act as a role model for the younger members of the club. Every time I'm volunteering, they are like, "Oh, thank you so much," so I think it gives me that sense of satisfaction when I see the happiness on their faces, and I feel like I'm helping someone on my own (interviewee, 2020)’.

Another participant, #11, made the following statement:

‘Volunteering is an activity in which I give my money, energy, time, and anything else without expecting anything in return. I found my volunteer work through a friend's volunteer. I participate in volunteer activities such as donating blood to save our mothers' lives, visiting patients at hospitals, and helping needy people. The main benefits that I derive from volunteering are mental satisfaction and happiness. My religion has a moral foundation for my personality, wisdom, conscience, and loyalty at all times. It is influential on my engagement in volunteering. Concerning the advantages, the first is to educate the community by raising awareness in order to foster a positive attitude toward volunteering and helping others. And personally, volunteering increases my pleasure in life (interviewee, 2020)’.

Regarding the benefit it has for the volunteers themselves, Key Informant #12 shared his idea as follows:

‘Volunteering has many benefits for the volunteer, such as moral satisfaction and blessings from a religious perspective, as well as wider acceptance from society. It also helps volunteers gain experience, new skills, and knowledge, as well as a certificate, which can help them access the world of work (Key Informant, 2020)’.

5 Discussion and conclusion

People around the globe are involved in diverse extracurricular activities for different reasons. According to the published statistics of UN Volunteers in 2019, people engage in volunteerism to reduce poverty, enhance basic health, and foster education for those who are unable to attend school, in addition to mitigating social exclusion and creating a violence-free community. Therefore, this paper aimed to explore the concentration of voluntarism activities at the University of Gondar, with the aim of exploring the possible factors, volunteer areas, and benefits that students expect after engaging in volunteer activities.

Accordingly, the quantitative findings of this study show that the main motivational factor for student volunteering was the desire to help other needy people. Moreover, the findings also show that the majority of the participants were involved in social and disability affairs, such as helping people with disabilities, the elderly, and orphan children on the street. In contrast, Hyden & Hailemariam [50] explain that people engage in voluntarism without understanding its function or building their resumes. In Japan, according to Iizuka and Aldrich [51], student volunteering is significantly impacted by a cultural concept called 'giri" that emphasizes social obligations and reciprocity. Students may feel compelled to participate due to a sense of duty, familial and communal commitment, and a genuine wish to promote social cohesion. Involvement in activities like disaster relief, community festivals, and programs aiding the elderly is widespread among students seeking to make meaningful contributions to their societies.

Of course, enhancing future opportunities and boosting their profiles for future employment were intrinsic motivational factors for students at the University of Gondar, but they were not the sole reasons for engaging in volunteer activities, as traced by Hyden and Hailemariam [50]. The self-determination theory Ng et al. [15] distinguishes between two specific styles of motivation: intrinsic and extrinsic. They characterize intrinsic motivation as doing something because it is inherently exciting or interesting and extrinsic motivation as doing something because it leads to a separable outcome. Hence, altruistic reasons for charitable donations would be an intrinsic motivator at the same time as strategic reasons for charitable donations would be an extrinsic motivator. Based on a study of British donors, Clary et al. [16] found that extrinsic variables like demographics (gender, income, training) and intrinsic variables like generosity, religiosity, previous volunteering experience, perceptions of charities' performance, and perceived economic situation have a positive impact on the amount of money donated to charities. Also, Shabila et al. [52] studied the effect of intrinsic and extrinsic variables on the giving behavior of donors from Taiwan and observed that extrinsic variables (e.g., demographics) and intrinsic variables (e.g., altruism, familiarity with a charity) have a positive impact on giving behavior. This research finding has become more consistent with the Indians' student volunteerism, as stated by Ghose and Kassam [53]. In India, the motivations behind volunteerism and charitable giving are often multifaceted, blending intrinsic and extrinsic factors. While considerations like future prospects and employability are relevant, they don't overshadow other significant drivers. Cultural and religious influences, embodied in principles like "seva" and "dana," strongly motivate individuals to participate in community service. Moreover, a pervasive sense of social responsibility, active community involvement, and a deeply ingrained philanthropic ethos all contribute to the robust tradition of volunteerism and charitable giving in India [53, 54].

Moreover, the study outlined that encountering real-life situations in a particular professional area is valuable to students, and the acknowledgment of this work on their curriculum vitae is a significant underlying factor in their participation in volunteer work. Similarly, Demougin et al. [10] suggest that, in a study of university students in the United Kingdom, the opportunity to increase employability was the main reason for some participants' first becoming involved in volunteering. In the influential Irish report entitled "Lending a Hand," Sidder [37] draws attention to the idea that job and career development are not the most influential motivations for volunteering among youth participants.

Another important result of this study is that the opportunity to learn and develop skills and qualities was mentioned as an important motivator for study participants. Acquiring new skills and knowledge, as well as contacting other people and helping others in society, was a key reason why students chose to become involved in volunteer activities. Previous research by Ziltener and Gabathuler [55] generated similar findings. A study of psychology students in Switzerland undertaking voluntary work at a clinic illustrated how the participants had substantially developed their skills, and the majority of the students in the country were subsequently less anxious about working with clients who suffered from mental difficulties. Therefore, consistent findings were drawn from this research study and previous literature, which reinforces and strengthens the findings that the opportunity to learn new skills and qualities is a significant motivation for student volunteering.

Unlike the results of this study and those of Ziltener and Gabathuler [55], Bauer's [56] study revealed that students were particularly engaged in voluntarism and internships just to meet their basic volunteer needs without having a real intention to be involved. Contrary to the findings of Bauer [56], this study shows that many of the participants mentioned the importance of helping one another by volunteering to support and assist those individuals and groups in society who require help and assistance.

In the same vein, Son and Wilson [9] elaborated on the importance of giving back to society. Providing help and support to those less fortunate is a motivational factor evident in the majority of previous studies, and this was also apparent throughout the analysis of the research project. It is interesting to note that many of the students in the study concluded that they preferred making a positive contribution to their local community. The students identified that they had learned so much from volunteering and believed it was important to return the favor by offering their services in the form of volunteering. Further research would be required to ensure the reliability and confidence in these findings.

The benefits gained by students who engage in volunteering show both similarities and differences to previously conducted research. The benefits of volunteering are closely linked to individuals' motivation to participate in this area of volunteering. Drawing comparisons with previous research from Kirby [6], this study elaborated on how individuals who volunteer are more likely to feel an increased sense of moral satisfaction and see an individual's happiness more than those who do not engage in volunteering. Volunteering increases physical and mental health, as well as integrating into society and feeling accepted by the wider community, which was highlighted as a key benefit to volunteers [57, 58].

Similarly, in this research, the participants identified increased satisfaction and happiness as core benefits of volunteering. Making a positive contribution to society, particularly in their local community, enhances the students' sense of enjoyment and happiness. Simple expressions, such as acknowledgment and positive words for engagement, gave the volunteers the greatest sense of satisfaction.

The current study also adds further substance to the perception that increased satisfaction and happiness are core benefits of volunteering. An interesting theme that arose in the study is how volunteering positively affected the participants. The opportunity to apply classroom theories in real-life situations is thought to be extremely beneficial to the students.

The area of volunteer work in each of the interviews was closely linked to the specific subject they were researching. The development of creating contacts with other people through their voluntary experience, which could ultimately benefit them in the future, was highlighted by all of the students in the study. The opportunity to make contact with others provided by volunteering allowed students to be recognized by their peers and the university community for their voluntary efforts. Contacting similar people allowed the participants to broaden their knowledge in a particular area of interest, especially volunteering. Likewise, in Australia, volunteerism frequently serves as a means to network and forge connections. Student volunteers often select activities that resonate with their academic or research pursuits, facilitating interactions with professionals and specialists in their respective domains. Establishing such connections through volunteer engagements can bolster their credentials and pave the way for prospective endeavors [44, 59].

Based on the study's findings, the researchers conclude that volunteering is important for students to enhance their opportunities to be hired by different companies, which could be governmental or non-governmental organizations. The findings depict that employers often look at employees' profiles to see how participation in volunteerism creates awareness of society's specific social problems, and volunteering reflects those abilities and provides a range of social skills that are also valuable for the participants and students in this sense. The study found this factor to be crucial for the study participants to engage in volunteerism. The study findings suggest that encouraging students to engage in volunteer activities could enhance their employability prospects. To put the findings into action and enhance student engagement, the researchers’ recommend that volunteer activities amalgamate with educational curricula and institutional or organizational collaboration with universities to involve students in their daily work tasks for internships. Moreover, the study acknowledges the need for volunteer centers in each educational institution and awareness-creation schemes among students to highlight the benefits and pros of volunteerism. Overall, by implementing the above measures likewise in other countries, volunteerism practices could proliferate in Ethiopia, improve the employability rate, and create a more active workforce. This study's findings also improve volunteerism policy in Ethiopia if the measures are effectively followed and include the recommendation that the study forwarded.

6 Recommendations and implications for future studies

Based on the findings of the study, the researchers offer the following recommendations: Since volunteering is a noble activity, and community service is the duty of all institutions of higher education to foster the development of the country, their students, and provide service to the community, the encouragement of student volunteerism is highly recommended based on the findings. However, this encouragement must be accomplished through careful planning and organized movement to maximize the benefits to all parties involved. To begin and maintain a successful student volunteer program, a combination of all concerned bodies (such as the research and community service directorate, administration, faculty, department heads, students, recipient agencies, etc.) should work together aggressively. This committee should be the foundation for ongoing volunteerism. Therefore, this could be implemented through a suitable budget as a vital resource and by assigning instructors and lecturers to supervise student volunteerism. The program took place at the University of Gondar, in particular, and in the city of Gondar, in general.

The University of Gondar should fully acknowledge and provide material and moral support to those voluntary associations so that volunteer students, as well as other non-volunteer students, can join the association with the desire to help other needy people. The current voluntary associations found on campus should work aggressively to make their voluntary movement more formal and organized in terms of manpower, members, and donor agents. They need to create awareness by mobilizing students. Examining the effects of department and faculty is important because students of different disciplines can have different value systems, and different professions may have their own worlds. A system of recognition and certificates should be established for the volunteers. Of all the possible sources of motivation described by the respondents, recognition by the institution is the only motivator that the institution can control. The other sources of motivation are internal to the volunteer and are related to personal development. The required resources needed to fully attain the recommendations are financial support, administrative support, training and capacity building, promotional materials, networking opportunities, and research and evaluation. The researchers believe that the required recommendation could alter the volunteerism motivation among students at the University of Gonder. This experience afterward could help other universities other than the University of Gondar.

As mentioned, there is a gap in the literature concerning the specific experiences and motivations of student volunteers. A replication of this study with a much larger sample size could prove to be very beneficial. The ability to compare and contrast the motivation of volunteers within the same study participants (volunteer students in higher education institutions in Ethiopia) by having a sample that consists of both volunteers would shed much-needed light on what truly factors into increasing volunteer student engagement in various areas of volunteering.

As a limitation, the manuscript is primarily focused on the experiences and motivations of students who participate in volunteer activities, rather than the views and experiences of the individuals or communities who receive assistance. Although the manuscript acknowledges the primary goal of volunteerism as helping those in need, it fails to provide a comprehensive understanding of the impact of volunteer activities on the recipients themselves.

It is essential to understand the perspectives of the beneficiaries of volunteer activities to evaluate the effectiveness of volunteerism and identify areas for improvement. Without this information, there is a risk that volunteer activities may be driven only by the desire to satisfy personal goals and may not necessarily address the actual needs of the people being assisted.

Therefore, it is crucial to incorporate the views and experiences of the recipients of volunteer activities to provide a more complete understanding of the impact of student volunteerism. This approach would help to ensure that volunteer efforts are more targeted and effective and genuinely help those who are in need. In addition, this research, as we mentioned, faced certain limitations by omitting the examination of technological advancements and the influence of digitalization on strategies for recruiting volunteers. In light of this, it is recommended that future studies delve into the role of technology in facilitating student volunteerism and community service. This exploration may encompass analyzing the utilization of digital platforms, virtual volunteering, and online engagement to surmount geographical constraints and augment the efficacy and scope of volunteer programs.