1 Introduction

Construction and demolition (CDW) waste refers to the waste generated from construction, renovation and demolition activities [1,2,3]. CDW waste often makes up 10–30% of the total waste disposed of at landfills in numerous cities globally [4]. This means that CDW serves as a significant contributor to urban solid waste. CDW includes materials such as concrete, wood, metals, bricks, plastics and other non-hazardous materials [5,6,7]. CDW is a significant environmental concern globally due to its large volume and potential impact on human health and the environment [8, 9]. This indicates that CDW comprise the majority of the solid waste stream, posing a significant environmental threat to many countries. According to [10] and [11], the construction industry generates a significant amount of waste, with the CDW accounting for approximately 35% and 50% of municipal solid waste in developed and developing countries, respectively. The composition and management approaches of CDW vary between developing nations and developed countries [12, 13]. The management of CDW is gaining increased focus in less developed countries [14,15,16]. Nevertheless, the majority of less developed nations do not have the necessary financial and technical capabilities to handle CDW. Shortage of finance means inadequate collection and storage, as well as illegal dumping of construction and demolition waste.

In Zimbabwe, CDW is a growing issue as the construction industry continues to expand [17]. Zimbabwe is experiencing rapid urbanization and infrastructure development in recent years, leading to an increase in construction and demolition activities. As a result of this, the generation of CDW has also increased significantly in Zimbabwe [18, 19]. Construction and demolition waste in Zimbabwe is frequently disposed of without proper consideration, which encourages the illegal dumping of various types of waste [20, 21]. This increases environmental impact and raises challenges to the public community. [22] and [23] opined that it is imperative to establish proficient and successful strategies to manage CDW to safeguard the environment and human health. However, stakeholders involved in CDW management have varying concerns and priorities, leading to challenges in waste management [24,25,26]. This concludes that coordination of all entities involved in the process is crucial for the success of waste management operations.

Construction and demolition industry in Zimbabwe is a significant contributor to the country’s economy, with a growing demand for buildings, infrastructure and other structures [27, 28]. However, this industry also generates a substantial amount of waste, including materials such as concrete, bricks, wood and other debris. In Zimbabwe urban areas, the municipal solid waste collection includes CDW, constituting 30.6% to 39.6% of the total waste in suburbs such as Monomotapa and Shamrock respectively [29]. According to [2] it is worth noting that composition of construction and demolition waste varies depending on the specific location and type of construction project. In recent years, there has been a growing concern about the management and health impacts of construction and waste if not properly disposed of [15, 30]. In Zimbabwe, renovation and construction activities produce various waste materials such as iron sheets, asbestos, builder’s rubble and broken bricks [17]. However, these materials are then gathered and managed by municipalities to ensure proper disposal and recycling, with the majority of it ending up in landfills or being dumped in open spaces. This has led to environmental and health problems, that include air, water pollution and the spread of diseases. In Zimbabwe, the government has implemented various policies and regulations aimed at promoting sustainable management of CDW [27, 29]. Policies and regulations for waste management in Zimbabwe include Environmental Management Act [Chapter 20:27], Public Health Act [Chapter 15:09] and the Urban Council Act [Chapter 29:15].

Waste management policies and regulations in Zimbabwe require construction and demolition companies to submit waste management plans before starting work and the establishment of designated waste disposal sites [28, 29, 77]. Despite these efforts, hazards associated with CDW still exist in Zimbabwe. Nevertheless, a significant gap exists in terms of literature focusing on strategies which effectively address safety and health hazards associated with construction and demolition waste in Zimbabwe. Literature which exist in Zimbabwe regarding construction and demolition waste management put much attention on matters which include waste generation, reuse, recycle, reduce and waste disposal procedures, while putting little attention to safety and health hazards associated with construction and demolition waste in Zimbabwe. As a result, this study seeks to cover the gap by examining management of safety and health hazards (MSHH) associated with construction and demolition waste in Zimbabwe. The research questions of the review paper include:

What current measures are used to manage safety and health hazards associated with construction and demolition waste in Zimbabwe?

What are the main types of safety and health hazards faced during handling, transportation and disposal of waste produced during construction and demolition activities in Zimbabwe?

How do safety policies and regulations in Zimbabwe address the issue of safety and health hazards associated with construction and demolition waste?

What recommendations can be provided to manage safety and health hazards associated with construction and demolition waste inn Zimbabwe?

The hypotheses for the review paper include:

Hypotheses 1

Lack of adequate safety awareness training among employees result to increased risk of injuries and accidents related to management of construction and demolition waste in Zimbabwe.

Hypotheses 2

Poor compliance to safety policies due to poor enforcement of the laws result to increased safety and health hazards during handling activities of construction and demolition waste.

Hypotheses 3

Implementation of sufficient risk assessment procedures may reduce the manifestation of safety and health hazards associated with management of construction and demolition waste in Zimbabwe.

Through addressing exact problems faced by Zimbabwe concerning management of safety and health hazards associated with construction and demolition waste, this review paper provide vital insights that can actually result to improvement of safety practices, regulations as well as policies focusing on management of construction and demolition waste in Zimbabwe. The findings of the study help Zimbabwe to achieve a number of Sustainable Development Goals. By recognizing and addressing health risks in the construction and demolition waste management process, the study’s conclusions can help to achieve SDG 3 which focus on Good Health and Well-being. This will make the working environment safer for those employed in the sector. Through suggesting creative ways to manage waste in the construction industry and promoting more environmentally friendly practices, Zimbabwe can achieve Sustainable Development Goal 9 which put much attention on industry, innovation and infrastructure. The study’s results offer a way to achieve Sustainable Goal 11: Sustainable Cities and Communities. This means the findings of this study are vital in promoting appropriate methods to manage waste in urban areas and this reduce risks which affect the well-being of people and increase urban sustainability.

2 Conceptual model for the study

A well-known paradigm for categorizing hazard controls in workplace safety and health is the Hierarchy of Controls according to the National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health. Hierarchy of controls offers an organized method for determining and putting into practice the best countermeasures to reduce the risks connected to occupational hazards. There are five categories in the hierarchy of controls, which are elimination, substitution, engineering controls, administrative controls and personal protective equipment/clothe (PPE/C) and they are arranged according to order of their efficacy. As a result of this, this study applies the hierarchy of controls as the conceptual model in management of safety and health hazards associated with construction and demolition waste in Zimbabwe. The hierarchy of controls is shown in Fig. 1.

Fig. 1
figure 1

Source: National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) (2015)

Hierarchy of controls management.

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Elimination is indicated at the top of the hierarchy of controls. Removal of the risk from the workplace physically means elimination NIOSH, 2015. Redesigning procedures to generate fewer debris or adopting alternative materials with lower risks are two ways that can assist elimination of hazards at the source when it comes to management of construction and demolition waste. Substitution follows elimination on the hierarchy of controls as indicated in Fig. 1. Substitution means changing potentially harmful substances or methods with less risky ones [31]. For example, reducing hazards for waste workers can be achieved by replacing harmful construction and demolition materials with healthier alternatives.

Engineering controls Engineering controls entail creating structural barriers to keep employees away from dangers [32]. Examples include utilizing automated equipment to reduce the dangers associated with manual handling or establishing ventilation systems to regulate dust exposure during construction and demolition operations. Administrative controls: In order to reduce exposure to hazards, administrative controls focus on changes in working practices and policies [33]. In the context of management of safety and health hazards associated with construction and demolition waste, administrative controls may include implementation of proper safety training programs for employees on how to handle waste safely. Administrative members can establish clear safety protocols focusing on segregation of construction and demolition waste [34].

Personal Protective Equipment/Cothe (PPE/C) Personal Protective Equipment/Clothe is regarded as the last resort on the hierarchy of controls [31]. This means PPE/C is used to protect employees when other methods applied by the hierarchy of controls are not sufficient or feasible [35]. In the circumstance of managing safety and health hazards associated with construction and demolition waste, appropriate personal protective equipment/clothe, for example, gloves, respirators, overalls and hardhats should be given to workers basing on hazards identified within the workplace [36]. Features of the hierarchy of controls indicates that researchers may thoroughly evaluate risks, rank measures used to control risks and create a safe work environment for workers through applying the hierarchy of controls framework in the management of safety and health hazards associated with construction and demolition waste.

3 Study area

Zimbabwe is a landlocked country located in Southern Africa, bordered by Zambia to the north, Mozambique to the east, South Africa to the south and Botswana to the west [37]. Zimbabwe has diverse landscapes, with a mix of plateaus, highlands and low-lying areas. In Zimbabwe the high veld stretches from south west to north east and its altitude is 1 300 m because it’s a plateau. The other side is a low veld which is about 300–500 m in altitude. According to [38], the highlands in the east stretches for about 260 km from north (Nyanga) to south (Chipinge). The height of those highlands is above 2 000 m as shown by Mount Nyangani peak which is about 2592 m and is the highest [38], followed by Kweza located in the south which is 2437 m and Rukotso in the north is about 2405 m [38]. In Zimbabwe there is a Great Dyke, a massive geological for about 550 km long and 3 to 11 km wide [39]. Great Dyke is one of the largest platinum deposits in the world and has played a significant role in the country’s mining industry. The Great Dyke stretches from the north to the south through the center of Zimbabwe. Almost 66% of Zimbabwe consist crystalline rocks but granite is the most dominant hence, soils which originate from granite rocks covers 42% of the country [40]. According to [41], deep sands which originate from Kalahari deposits with high permeability dominates the other part of the country.

According to [37], Zimbabwe’s forest ecosystems consist of 45% of Mopane forest, 30% of Miombo forest and 25% of Baikiaena forest. The western part of the country is Baikiaea, the northern and eastern part is dominated by Miombo. The Save and Zambezi valleys are dominated by Mupane woodlands. According to [42], the miombo woodland is characterized by Julbernadia and Brachstegia trees and grass species such as Eragrostis. Ericaceous shrub land and montane grassland dominates the Eastern Highlands. As a result of this, Zimbabwe supports a wide variety of plant and animal life. The country is located between tropics and subtropics [43, 44]. The climate of Zimbabwe is reflected by the topography and its seasonal, August to October is the dry season which is hot, November to March is the wet season which is hot and April to July is winter season which is cool and dry [45, 46].

According to [47], Zimbabwe’s population is about 15.1 million. The population is divided into 7 289 558 males and 7 889 421 females hence, the sex ratio is 92 males and per 100 females. In Zimbabwe most of the people live in rural areas and they survive through subsistence farming. People in Zimbabwe grow different types of crops mhunga, rapoko, sorghum, maize, oil seeds and cash crops such as tobacco and cotton [48]. Due to the sporadic and insufficient precipitation in many regions of Zimbabwe, irrigation is a vital aspect for the prosperity of agricultural output in these areas. In Zimbabwe people are also involved in livestock rearing for example cattle and goats.

4 Methodology

The methodology used for literature search in the review paper involved a systematic approach to gather relevant information from various sources. Firstly, an extensive search was conducted on academic databases such as PubMed, Scopus, Google Scholar, Science Direct and Web of Science using key words related to CDW management, safety hazards and health hazards. Additionally, relevant government reports, policy documents and guidelines were accessed from official websites such as the Ministry of Health and Child Care and the Environmental Management Agency in Zimbabwe. Grey literature including conference proceedings and technical reports were also considered. Furthermore, manual searching was performed by reviewing the reference lists of identified articles to find relevant studies. The inclusion criteria for selecting articles included relevance to the topic, abstract and availability of full text articles. The exclusion criteria involved studies not conducted, not specifically addressing safety and health hazards associated with CDW. The review compiled by the researchers relied on a comprehensive retrieval of English literature published until 2023 to enhance the validity and reliability of the data used, which includes a wide range of scholarly articles, books and other sources. This was done to provide a thorough understanding of the topic. During literature review 102 papers were identified. Analysis of the retrieved documents was done through reading topic, abstract, keywords. After that 43 papers were selected and critically appraised for their quality and relevance to the research question. The findings from these sources were then synthesized to provide a comprehensive overview of the management of safety and health hazards associated with CDW in Zimbabwe. The research methodology flow chart is shown in Fig. 2.

Fig. 2
figure 2

Source: Authors

Research methodology flow chart.

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5 Summary introduction of the findings

The study explores the important aspect of controlling health and safety risks associated with building and demolition waste in Zimbabwe. The research findings emphasize the need of putting in place efficient safety measures to safeguard employees, communities and the environment by highlighting the common hazards and difficulties associated with managing waste from construction and demolition industries. In order to mitigate these risks, the study proposes various strategies which include appropriate waste segregation, the use of personal protective equipment, worker training initiatives and regulatory enforcement. The study offers useful insights for policymakers, industry stakeholders and practitioners to improve safety standards and promote sustainable waste management practices in the construction sector by analyzing the current practices and regulations in Zimbabwe regarding construction and demolition waste management.

6 Findings and discussion

6.1 Types of construction and demolition waste

There are several types of CDW, including concrete, wood, metal, bricks, glass, plastics and asphalt [3, 14, 49]. Concrete is one of the most common types of CDW, generated from construction sites and it poses challenges due to its weight and volume [50, 51]. This designates that concrete waste is a significant component of CDW. Concrete waste includes concrete blocks, slabs, beams and other concrete structures that are removed during demolition or renovation activities [1, 26]. Additionally, wood waste is another major component of CDW, arising from demolition activities and construction processes [13, 52]. According to [9] wood waste from construction and demolition activities includes boards, plywood, pallets and timber as well as other wooden materials. Wood waste is often generated from framing, formwork and packaging materials in construction and demolition companies [16, 23]. Metals, such as steel and aluminum, are also prevalent in CDW due to their use in structural components and fixtures [24, 53]. This clearly means categories of metal waste produced during construction and demolition activities includes structural steel, pipes, wiring, roofing materials and metal fixtures. [54] and [22] indicated that construction and demolition activities produce waste related to bricks, glass and plastics. Bricks, blocks, tiles and other masonry materials are common components of CDW [12, 25]. Plastic waste in construction and demolition activities includes packaging materials, pipes, fittings, insulation and other plastic products used in building construction [10, 55]. Glass materials removed from buildings are regarded as CDW [6, 34]. This indicates that glass waste from construction and demolition activities includes windows, glass doors, partitions and other glass components removed from buildings. Categories of construction and demolition waste and their examples are shown in Table 1.

Table 1 Categories of construction and demolition waste and their examples
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6.2 Safety and health hazards associated with construction and demolition waste

Construction and demolition waste is associated with various safety and health hazards to people notably physical, chemical, biological and ergonomic hazards [2, 30]. Physical hazards are prevalent in construction and demolition sites [6, 35]. This suggests that falls, trips and slips are common accidents in construction and demolition industries that can result from uneven surfaces, cluttered work areas or inadequate safety measures. Physical hazards lead to severe injuries such as fractures or head trauma [10, 22]. Construction and demolition waste is associated with falling objects which pose significant risks, especially when materials or debris are not properly secured or stored [24, 54]. According to [16] and [23] construction and demolition workers should wear appropriate personal protective equipment like hard hats to minimize risk of head injuries from falling debris waste [9]. Opined that noise exposure is another physical hazard in construction and demolition environments. Construction and demolition machinery, power tools and other equipment used during construction and demolition works generate high levels of noise that can cause hearing loss or impairment if workers are not adequately protected [13, 56]. As a result, employers should implement engineering controls like noise barriers or provide workers with hearing protection devices such as earplugs or earmuffs.

Construction and demolition works expose workers to vibration when they are operating vibrating tools or machinery for extended periods when dealing with brick waste which need to be destroyed [10, 24]. Nevertheless, prolonged exposure to hand-arm vibration leads to conditions like hand-arm vibration syndrome, which affects blood vessels, nerves, muscles and joints in the hands and arms. In construction and demolition industries employees should be provided with anti-vibration gloves and regularly maintain equipment to vibration levels [1, 26]. Additionally, dust is a common by-product of CDW [51]. This means that inhalation of dust particles is common among workers who deal with construction and demolition waste, however, this causes respiratory issues such as asthma, bronchitis or silicosis if it contains hazardous substances like crystalline silica. There is a need to protect workers from dust produced when dealing with construction and demolition waste through wetting down surfaces, through using local exhaust ventilation systems to reduce dust levels and through wearing respiratory protection [14, 49]. Moreover, ergonomic hazards are prevalent in management of construction and demolition waste due to physical demands placed on workers’ bodies [13, 17]. This specifies that management of construction and demolition waste is associated with manual handling of heavy objects which can lead to musculoskeletal disorders such as back injuries or strains. Cranes or forklifts ought to be vital mechanical aids in construction and demolition companies to reduce manual handling hazards among waste workers in construction and demolition industries [15, 30]. Repetitive tasks performed during management of construction and demolition waste contribute to musculoskeletal disorders [29, 33].

Hazardous materials are often present in CDW, posing significant risks to workers’ safety and health [6, 34]. Asbestos is a well-known hazardous material commonly found in older buildings and inhalation of asbestos fibers can lead to serious diseases like lung cancer [5, 57]. This means proper identification, handling and removal procedures should be followed when dealing with asbestos-containing materials. Lead-based paint is also regarded as hazardous material that may be encountered during construction and demolition works [16, 23]. This clearly shows that in Construction and Demolition Company workers are exposed to lead which causes neurological damage as a result, strict containment and removal protocols should be followed to prevent lead exposure. Additionally, lead-based paint and lead pipes found in older buildings can contaminate the environment during demolition, posing a risk of lead poisoning particularly to children [58, 59]. [60] and [61] indicated that exposure to volatile organic compounds (VOCs) from paints, solvents and adhesives commonly found in CDW materials result in eye, nose and throat irritation as well as long term health effects such as liver and kidney damage. Moreover, improper disposal of CDW through leaching of hazardous chemical waste into the soil and groundwater [17, 30]. This denotes that improper management of CDW can contribute to environmental pollution and ecosystem degradation.

In areas where moisture is present biological hazards can arise from CDW leading to respiratory infections and allergic reactions among workers exposed to mold spores [9, 52]. This implies that inadequate handling and disposal of CDW can also lead to biological hazards from exposure to bacteria and other pathogens present in damp or decaying CDW. Biological hazards may be present in CDW, especially in older structures where mold, bacteria and other microorganisms can thrive [10, 34]. In addition, workers involved in waste sorting or handling may come into contact with sharp objects or contaminated materials that can cause cuts or puncture wounds, potentially leading to infections [29, 33].

6.3 National legislation and regulations related to construction and demolition waste management in Zimbabwe

6.3.1 Environmental management act [Chapter 20:27]

The regulatory framework for managing safety and health hazards in Zimbabwe is primarily governed by national legislation and regulations related to CDW management. The Environmental Management Act (Chapter 20:27) is the primary legislation that governs waste management in Zimbabwe. Under the Environmental Management Act, the Environmental Management Agency (EMA) is responsible for overseeing waste management activities including those related to CDW. This entails that the Environmental Management Agency has also developed guidelines and regulations specifically addressing CDW management. Guidelines developed by EMA for addressing CDW provide guidance on waste minimization, segregation, storage, transportation and disposal practices. The Environmental Management Agency outlines the responsibilities of different stakeholders involved in construction projects including developers, contractors and waste generators. In relation to the management of safety and health hazards associated with CDW, the Environmental Management Act establishes several key provisions. These provisions aim to ensure that construction and demolition activities are carried out in a manner that minimizes risks to human health and the environment. One of the primary objectives of the Act is to promote sustainable development by preventing or minimizing pollution and environmental degradation. Section 4 of the Act states that every person has a duty to take reasonable measures to prevent or minimize pollution, ecological degradation and damage to the environment. This provision applies to all activities including construction and demolition activities which have the potential to generate waste and pose safety and health hazards. Section 73 of the Act specifically addresses waste management. It requires any person who generates waste, including CDW to take all reasonable steps to prevent pollution or harm to human health and the environment. This includes implementing appropriate measures for the safe handling, storage, transportation, treatment and disposal of waste.

6.4 Environmental impact assessment policy

In Zimbabwe the Environmental Management Act (Chapter 20:27) lists all projects that require Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) including housing developments projects. Under Part XI of the institutional and legal provisions for environmental management in Zimbabwe, all development projects, particularly those with substantial adverse environmental effects, must undergo comprehensive EIA. This infers that the Environmental Impact Assessment regulations (Statutory Instrument 14 of 2007) require all development projects including construction and demolition projects to undergo an EIA to identify potential environmental impacts and propose mitigation measures. According to [62], the use of the Environmental Impact Assessment tool is important in the management of waste, specifically during treatment and discarding stages. Municipalities in Zimbabwe are advised to conduct the EIA process prior to selecting sites for waste disposal and building waste treatment plants. According to the Environmental Impact Assessment, the positioning waste landfill should follow the standards of the Environmental Management Act (Chapter 20:27) in order to protect residents from hazards associated with inappropriate disposal of waste. This denotes that the EIA supports the municipalities in implementation of preventive measures such as implementing proper disposal methods and recycling programs to mitigate the negative impacts of waste on the environment and public health.

6.4.1 Factories and workers act [Chapter 14:08]

The Factories and Works Act was passed in 1996 and it aims to tackle concerns regarding the safeguarding of workers and the prevention of accidents in various workplaces. The Factories and Works Act was implemented following OHS legislations like the Statutory Instrument 68 of 1990 which outlines specific requirements for employers to provide a safe and healthy work environment for employees. Employers are required by the Factories and Workers Act to provide employees with an adequate supply of personal protective equipment/clothing. This signifies that workers involved in dealing with CDW should be equipped with PPE/C to protect them from safety and health hazards. According to the Act workers should be trained about safety and health hazards associated with CDW. As a result, government agencies, contractors, developers and workers involved in construction and demolition projects should comply with Factories and Workers Act [Chapter 14:08] to protect workers from safety and health hazards associated with construction and demolition waste.

6.4.2 Hazardous substances and articles act [Chapter 15:17]

The Hazardous Substances and Articles Act [Chapter 15:17] is a legislation in Zimbabwe that regulates the management of hazardous substances and articles. While the Hazardous Substances and Articles Act does not specifically mention CDW, it provides a framework for managing safety and health hazards associated with such waste. The Act provides a system for classifying hazardous substances based on their properties and potential risks. This classification helps in identifying which materials in CDW may pose safety or health hazards. For example, asbestos is classified as a hazardous substance due to its carcinogenic properties. The Act requires individuals in activities related to hazardous substances to obtain licenses or registrations. Activities involved in hazardous substances include storage, transportation, handling or disposal of hazardous substances. Construction companies or waste management facilities dealing with construction and demolition waste may need to comply with these licensing requirements to ensure proper management of hazardous materials. The Hazardous Substances and Articles Act [Chapter 15:17] imposes a duty of care on persons who deal with hazardous substances or articles. This duty requires them to take all reasonable measures to prevent harm to human health and the environment. In the context of CDW, this duty requires contractors, builders and waste management operators to handle and dispose of hazardous materials safely. The Act requires proper labeling, packaging and storage to minimize the risk of accidents or exposure to hazardous materials during construction and demolition waste management. The Act also specifies methods and facilities approved for safe disposal or treatment of hazardous materials. As a result, CDW containing hazardous substances need to be disposed of in accordance with the Hazardous Substances and Articles Act to protect human health and environmental contamination.

6.4.3 The public health act [Chapter 15:09]

The Public Health Act [Chapter 15:09] of Zimbabwe outlines the regulations and guidelines for the management of safety and health hazards associated with CDW. The Act covers a wide range of topics related to public health, including the handling, storage, transportation and disposal of CDW. Under the Public Health Act, the responsible authorities for the management of CDW are the local authorities who are responsible for ensuring that all waste is disposed of in a safe and healthy manner. Local authorities are mandated by Sect. 83 of the Public Health Act to guarantee a clean environment within their jurisdiction for the purpose of safeguarding humanity. Nevertheless, private operators can collect CDW to prevent constant accumulation of waste at construction and demolition sites. The Act requires that all CDW be properly sorted, categorized and disposed of in accordance with the regulations set in the Act. According to the Act construction and demolition sites be inspected regularly to ensure compliance with the regulations of the Act. The responsible authorities are required to submit reports and records related to the management of CDW. In addition to the regulations set forth in the Act, there are also guidelines and standards for the management of CDW that must be followed. These guidelines and standards include the use of personal protective equipment, proper handling and storage of waste and the use of appropriate equipment and machinery for the disposal of waste. The Public Health Act provides for the establishment of a Health and Safety Committee, which is responsible for overseeing the management of safety and health hazards on construction and demolition sites. The Health and Safety Committee is composed of representatives from the employer, employees and the responsible authorities and responsible for ensuring that all safety and health regulations are being followed.

6.4.4 The urban councils act [Chapter 29:15]

The Act governs waste management in urban areas. The Act sets out the responsibilities of urban councils in ensuring the safe and healthy environment for their communities including the proper disposal of CDW. Under Sect. 14 of the Urban Council Act, urban councils are responsible for the collection, removal and disposal of refuse including CDW. The Urban Council Act requires urban councils to provide facilities for the storage and disposal of CDW and ensure that these facilities are properly maintained. Additionally, the Urban Council Act empowers urban councils to enter into agreements with other authorities, organisations or individuals for the purpose of managing CDW. This includes the establishment of joint ventures or partnerships to operate and maintain facilities for the disposal of CDW.

6.5 Risk assessment and management strategies in construction and demolition waste management

Construction and demolition waste management involves the identification, evaluation, implementation, monitoring and review of management strategies using risk assessment [13, 51]. In Zimbabwe, like in many other countries, the risk assessment process is crucial to ensure the safety of workers, protect the environment and comply with regulations [63, 64]. According to the [65] and [66] risk assessment helps to identify potential hazards, evaluate risks associated with different types of waste types, implement control measures to mitigate risks and continuously monitor and review risk management strategies.

The first step in risk assessment and management is to identify potential hazards in CDW management [30, 67]. Hazards associated with CDW management include physical, chemical, biological, ergonomic and psychosocial risks [68]. To identify safety and health hazards associated with management of CDW, a thorough assessment of the CDW management process should be conducted [29]. However, risk assessment should consider all stages of waste management including waste collection, transportation and sorting, recycling, disposal and site remediation. Once potential hazards are identified the next step is to evaluate the risks associated with different types of CDW and activities performed during the management of waste [49, 56]. This implies that evaluation involves assessing the likelihood and severity of potential incidents or accidents occurring and also considers the vulnerability of workers and the environment to risks associated with CDW. Different waste types pose varying levels of risk, for example, hazardous materials like asbestos or lead-based paint require special handling procedures due to their potential health effects [2, 15]. In the management of CDW risk evaluation consider factors such as worker training and experience, availability of personal protective equipment and compliance with regulations related to CDW [52, 54].

After evaluating risks associated with CDW, control measures should be implemented to mitigate those risks [69]. Measures implemented after evaluation of risks include engineering controls, administrative controls and personal protective equipment [31, 32, 70]. Administrative controls include providing proper waste management training, establishment of safe work practices and conducting regular inspections [33, 34]. Personal protective equipment such as gloves, masks or safety goggles should be provided to workers dealing with CDW [17, 35]. However, it is important to note that control measures should be tailored to specific waste types and activities associated with CDW. Once control measures are implemented it is crucial to continuously monitor and review risk management strategies [64, 71]. As a result, monitoring and review of risk management helps to identify any new hazards that may arise during the waste management processes or any shortcomings in existing control measures used to manage CDW. Monitoring involves regular inspections of waste management sites [72, 73]. By continuously monitoring and reviewing risk management strategies, improvements can be made over time to enhance safety and environmental protection in CDW.

6.6 Personal protective equipment/clothing (PPE/C) for construction and demolition waste management

Personal Protective Equipment/Clothe (PPE/C) refers to specialized clothing, equipment and accessories designed to protect workers from hazards in their work environment [74, 75]. One of the primary reasons for using PPE/C in construction and demolition waste management is to protect workers from physical hazards [26, 50]. Physical hazards include falling objects, sharp materials and debris that may cause injuries such as cuts, punctures or fractures [32, 49]. This means PPE/C such as hard hats, safety goggles and steel-toed boots are essential in preventing head injuries, eye injuries and foot injuries. Additionally, gloves and other protective clothing can shield workers from contact with hazardous substances or chemicals commonly found in CDW [25, 57]. Personal protective equipment/clothing plays a crucial role in ensuring the safety and well-being of workers in the CDW management industry [15, 22].

Another critical aspect of PPE/C in management of CDW is respiratory protection [14, 16]. Construction and demolition sites often generate dust, fumes and other airborne particles that can be harmful if inhaled [2, 3]. This denotes that respiratory protective equipment such as masks or respirators are necessary to prevent respiratory diseases or conditions caused by exposure to hazardous CDW. Properly fitted masks or respirators filter out harmful particles and ensure that workers breathe clean air while performing their tasks related to construction and demolition activities [6, 10]. This implies that PPE/C helps to protect workers from potential health risks associated with hazardous materials present in the CDW. Hazardous materials present in construction and demolition waste include asbestos, lead-based paint, silica dust and other harmful substances [9, 57]. As a result, PPE/C acts as a shield by preventing direct contact or inhalation of hazardous substances and this reduces the risk of long-term health issues such as respiratory diseases or poisoning.

6.7 Construction and demolition waste segregation, handling and storage practices

Proper waste segregation, handling and storage practices are essential to minimize the risks associated with hazardous materials and promote sustainable waste management [2, 10]. Waste segregation is the process of separating different types of waste materials based on their characteristics such as hazardousness, recyclability or biodegradability [17, 62]. In the context of CDW management in Zimbabwe, effective waste segregation plays a crucial role in minimizing potential safety and health hazards [29, 68]. This denotes that waste segregation allows proper disposal or recycling of different waste streams, reducing environmental pollution and promoting resource conservation. By segregating waste at the source, it becomes easier to manage and process different materials separately and this increases the efficiency of recycling and reduces the overall volume of waste sent to landfills. Segregating construction and demolition waste at the source allows for effective sorting and recovery of valuable materials like metals, wood, bricks and plastics [6, 7]. This suggests that materials recovered during segregation of CDW can be recycled or reused in new construction projects and this reduces the demand for new resources. In addition, segregation of CDW is vital in identifying hazardous materials like asbestos or lead-based paints hence they can be handled separately to prevent contamination and health risks [8, 9, 16]. However, to implement effective CDW segregation practices in Zimbabwe it is important to establish clear guidelines and regulations that define the categories of waste materials and their appropriate segregation methods. Guidelines created regarding segregation of CDW should be communicated to all stakeholders involved in construction and demolition projects notably contractors, workers and waste management personnel [13, 14].

Additionally, proper handling practices are essential to ensure the safe transportation and movement of CDW within a worksite or during its transfer to disposal facilities [2, 23]. As a result, it is crucial in Zimbabwe to train workers involved in construction and demolition activities the safe handling of CDW to minimize safety and health risks associated with CDW. Safe handling techniques are crucial to protect workers’ health and prevent accidents and injuries during CDW management activities [22, 26]. Nevertheless, it is important to note that different types of waste materials require specific handling procedures to minimize risks effectively. According to [49] and Ramos and [52] during construction and demolition activities recyclable materials such as metals, plastics and wood should be handled separately and stored in designated containers or bins to avoid injuries and ensure the quality of recyclable construction and demolition waste. Hazardous construction and demolition waste like asbestos and lead-based paints require special precautions during handling [1, 34]. This clearly means trained professionals equipped with proper personal protective equipment should handle hazardous materials to avoid exposure. Asbestos-containing materials need to be wetted down to prevent the release of harmful fibers into the air [5, 57]. [33] indicated that large debris such as concrete chunks or bricks need to be handled using appropriate lifting equipment like cranes or forklifts. This implies that the use of suitable equipment and machinery for lifting, moving or loading waste materials can significantly reduce the risk of accidents. Workers involved in manual handling of debris waste produced by construction and demolition industries should wear personal protective equipment such as gloves, safety boots and helmets to prevent injuries which affect their health [7, 10]. Additionally, workers are trained about proper manual handling techniques to prevent strains, sprains and other musculoskeletal injuries associated with handling of construction and demolition waste [6, 9]. This designates that workers should be taught correct lifting postures, avoiding overexertion and seeking assistance when handling heavy or bulky construction and demolition waste items.

Proper storage practices are crucial for maintaining a safe and organized construction site while minimizing the risk of accidents or environmental contamination [8, 13]. In Zimbabwe, CDW should be stored in designated areas that are secure, well-maintained and easily accessible for waste collection or disposal [17, 21]. Key considerations for effective waste storage practices include segregated storage areas, containment measures and signage and labeling [22, 23]. Different types of waste materials should be stored separately to prevent cross-contamination and facilitate proper waste management [20, 26]. However, this can be achieved by allocating specific storage areas for different waste streams, such as wood, concrete, metals or hazardous materials. To prevent the dispersion of dust, debris or hazardous waste produced by construction and demolition waste appropriate containment measures should be implemented [49, 56]. Containment measures include covering waste piles with tarpaulins or using enclosed containers for hazardous materials [52, 54]. Following the containment measures clear signage and labelling should be used to indicate the type of waste stored in each area [26, 73]. This suggests that signage and labeling is vital since it helps workers to identify potential hazards associated with CDW and ensures that waste materials are handled correctly during disposal or recycling processes.

6.8 Transportation and disposal of construction and demolition waste

Transportation and disposal of CDW in Zimbabwe involve various practices, legal requirements and options for disposal [68, 76]. This entails that it is essential to ensure safe loading and transportation of waste materials while adhering to the legal framework. Transportation of CDW involves the movement of materials from the construction or demolition site to a designated disposal facility [2, 10]. In Zimbabwe, transportation of waste is often carried out using trucks and other heavy-duty vehicles [67, 77]. However, it is essential to ensure that vehicles used to transport CDW are suitable for transporting waste, since improper transportation of waste can lead to spillage, accidents and environmental pollution [6, 30]. This entails that proper transportation of CDW helps to prevent accidents, minimize environmental impacts and ensure safety of workers involved in construction and demolition waste. In construction and demolition industries managers should choose optimal transportation plans to transport CDW [14, 16]. This advocates that an effective waste collection and transportation plan which significantly lowers expenses associated with waste collection and transportation is implemented by managers in industries.

Disposing of CDW is a significant environmental concern due to its large volume and potential for negative impacts on the environment [2, 15]. This suggests that the disposal of CDW can lead to pollution, habitat destruction and resource depletion if not managed properly. Therefore, it is essential to employ effective waste management strategies to minimize the environmental impact of construction and demolition waste disposal. Disposal of solid waste including CDW in Zimbabwe involves various methods such as landfilling, recycling and reusing [20, 21]. Land filling is a common method where the waste is deposited into designated landfills and it is common for disposing of CDW [17]. Properly designed and managed landfills can help to contain waste and prevent environmental contamination [62, 77]. Nevertheless, the long term environmental impact of landfilling CDW should be carefully considered. According to [69] and [7] landfilling CDW material not only results in the wastage of resources, such as recyclable resources and land, but also leads to the pollution of groundwater and soil quality. This implies that landfilling should be used as a last resort after all other options such as recycling and reuse have been explored.

In recent years, there has been growing emphasis on recycling and reusing CDW to minimize environmental impact [6, 34]. The study conducted by [78] compared three various methods (landfilling, incineration and recycling) and concluded that recycling and reuse is the most environmentally-friendly way to treat CDW, followed by incineration and then landfilling. This entails that one of the most effective ways to manage CDW is through recycling and reuse. Natural resources are limited, but recycling CDW can produce endless raw materials, making recycling the best choice for processing CDW [10, 12]. Construction and demolition waste materials such as concrete, wood, metals and asphalt can often be recycled and used in new construction projects [2, 8]. Diverting construction and demolition waste materials from landfilling to recycle and reuse helps to conserve natural resources and reduce the impact of CDW disposal [22, 25]. However, implementing source separation at construction sites helps to segregate different types of waste for recycling or proper disposal. Source separation involves sorting materials at the point of generation, making it easier to recycle valuable resources and reduce the amount of waste sent to landfills [20, 62, 68]. Additionally, governments have started implementing regulations for environmental protection and promoting the use of recycling machines such as mobile or portable rock crushers to convert CDW into new-type aggregate [16, 24, 34].

Additionally, the cost of landfilling has risen due to the overall increase in urban land prices due to urbanization [55, 73]. This means the increase in urbanization has led to a lack of urban land, reducing the availability of infrastructure land and constraining landfill space. As a result, incineration has become another option for the disposal of CDW, which is a viable solution for reducing the amount of waste sent to landfills and producing energy from waste materials [16, 23, 51]. This implies that some CDW can be processed through waste to energy facilities to generate electricity or heat. Incineration reduces the volume of construction and demolition waste sent to landfills while producing energy [13, 77]. However, incineration of CDW not only produces harmful organic pollutants and toxic gases, for example, carbides, dioxins sulfides and nitrides, but also results in solid residues like combustion fly ash and slag [26, 62]. Hence, it is crucial to follow regulations and guidelines for waste disposal to prevent environmental contamination and public health risks.

6.9 Challenges faced by Zimbabwe in managing construction and demolition waste

Zimbabwe faces several challenges in managing waste due to lack of proper infrastructure and facilities for waste management [17, 19]. This implies that Zimbabwe has limited recycling and waste treatment facilities, leading to improper disposal of CDW. However, this results in environmental pollution and health hazards for the local communities and workers who deal with CDW [20, 29]. Additionally, lack of awareness and education about sustainable waste management practices among developers and contractors involved in construction and demolition activities contributes to improper handling of CDW [2, 16]. In developing countries there is a lack of stringent regulations and enforcement mechanisms for CDW management and Zimbabwe cannot be spared [19, 21, 79]. This denotes that existing waste management policies in Zimbabwe are not effectively enforced, leading to haphazard disposal practices by construction companies and individual builders. Lack of regulatory oversight exacerbates the environmental and health impacts of CDW [6, 7, 9].

Economic constraints pose a challenge to effective CDW management in Zimbabwe [13]. Economic constraints affect the availability of funds to use for proper management of CDW [8, 78]. This clearly means limited financial resources hinder investment in modern waste management technologies and infrastructure, making it difficult to implement sustainable waste management practices. The cost of establishing recycling facilities and implementing proper disposal methods is prohibitive for many stakeholders in the construction and demolition industry [17, 55]. There is a need for capacity building and skills development in the field of CDW management in Zimbabwe [15]. Lack of trained personnel and expertise in sustainable waste management techniques hinders the adoption of best practices in handling CDW in Zimbabwe [19, 55]. This indicates that building the capacity of professionals in the construction and demolition industry is crucial for improving waste management processes and promoting environmentally friendly waste practices in Zimbabwe.

7 Conclusion and recommendations

The management of safety and health hazards associated with construction and demolition waste in Zimbabwe is a critical issue that requires immediate attention and comprehensive strategies. The review paper has highlighted various hazards such as exposure to harmful substances, physical hazards and the potential for accidents. It has also discussed the existing regulations and policies related to waste management in Zimbabwe, emphasizing the need for stricter enforcement and implementation. Many challenges are faced by Zimbabwe in addressing safety and health hazards associated with construction and demolition waste. There are many issues pertaining to health and safety risks that the construction and demolition sector in Zimbabwe must deal with. These issues include poor waste management techniques, inadequate worker training, inadequate enforcement of laws, and low awareness within stakeholders. It is evident that effective management strategies, including proper waste disposal, recycling and the implementation of stringent safety regulations, are essential for mitigating the risks posed by construction and demolition waste in Zimbabwe. As a result, enhancing safety and health standards in the construction industry of Zimbabwe can be achieved by encouraging a culture of safety consciousness within the industry, engaging with local communities to promote responsible waste disposal practices, conducting routine inspections and audits to ensure compliance with regulations, and offering rewards for best practices.

To effectively manage safety and health hazards associated with construction and demolition waste in Zimbabwe, it is recommended that comprehensive risk assessments be conducted at construction and demolition sites. This should include identifying potential hazards, evaluating risks and implementing control measures to mitigate these risks. Additionally, there should be a focus on promoting awareness and training programs for workers to ensure they understand the risks associated with construction and demolition waste and are equipped with the necessary skills to handle waste safely. Furthermore, there is a need for collaboration between government agencies, industry stakeholders and local communities to develop sustainable waste management practices that prioritize safety and health. Strengthening regulatory frameworks and enforcement mechanisms is also crucial to ensure compliance with safety standards and regulations. Lastly, investing in research and innovation for sustainable waste management technologies can significantly contribute to reducing hazards associated with construction and demolition waste.