1 Introduction

Climate change poses unprecedented challenges to agriculture, threatening food security and livelihoods worldwide [1]. Despite the varying misconceptions of climate change—as a myth, perception, ideology formation, climate change is real and has been the changes in global weather patterns for a long time [2]. Similarly, climate change is the long-term alteration of weather variables which is often said to be anthropogenic-induced [3]. In Africa, where a significant portion of the population relies on agriculture for sustenance and income, the impacts of climate change on urban agriculture are particularly acute [4]. Furthermore, the intensification of climate change phenomena, such as erratic rainfall patterns, prolonged droughts, and extreme weather events, poses significant risks to urban farming systems. These challenges are exacerbated by factors such as land tenure insecurity, inadequate infrastructure, and limited access to inputs and resources [5]. Also, urban farmers face unique challenges in adapting to climate change due to limited resources, land constraints, and rapid urbanization. Urban agriculture denotes the cultivation of crops and the rearing of farm animals within the neighbourhoods of cities [6]. The operation of urban agriculture is on a subsistence basis for domestic consumption with minimal sales [7]. Urban agriculture mostly takes place at homes, communities, schools, institutions, or rooftops [8] and the focus is on crop and livestock production [9].

Urban agriculture in Africa is characterized by its diversity, with farmers cultivating a wide range of crops and raising various livestock species in urban and peri-urban areas [10]. Urban agriculture has emerged as a vital component of urban food systems, contributing to food security, poverty alleviation, and environmental sustainability [11]. Urban agriculture production helps in meeting the following Sustainable Development Goals—No Poverty (1), Zero Hunger (2), Good Health and Well-being (3), Sustainable Cities and Communities (11), and Responsible Consumption and Production (12) [12]. Understanding the adaptation strategies employed by urban crop and livestock farmers in Africa is essential for enhancing sustainable urban food production systems [13]. In response to climatic stressors such as unpredictable rainfall, high temperatures, and flooding, farmers are embracing innovative technologies, such as weather forecasting tools and mobile applications, to enhance their adaptive capacity and improve decision-making [4]. Despite the resilience demonstrated by urban farmers, several barriers and constraints hinder effective climate change adaptation in urban agriculture. These include limited access to finance and credit, lack of technical expertise and information, and inadequate policy support and institutional frameworks [9]. Addressing these challenges requires multi-stakeholder collaboration, policy reforms, and investments in infrastructure, capacity-building, and research and development.

In the context of Ghana, a nation heavily reliant on agriculture, the impacts of climate change are acutely felt, threatening food security, livelihoods, and socio-economic stability. Amidst this backdrop, the question of where adaptation efforts should be concentrated arises, particularly concerning the prioritization of rural versus urban farmers [1]. While both urban and rural agricultural systems are susceptible to climate-related risks, the case for prioritizing rural farmers in Ghana is usually in the forefront of agricultural policies. It is argued that the rural areas in Ghana are predominantly agrarian, with agriculture serving as the primary source of income and sustenance for a significant portion of the population [14]. It worth to note that as urban areas are expanding rapidly, the intersection of urban farming and climate change adaptation has emerged as a critical arena for sustainable development [15]. As urbanization accelerates, so does the significance of urban agriculture in ensuring food security for burgeoning populations [8]. Urban farmers, often overlooked in traditional climate change discourse, are now on the front lines, implementing innovative strategies to adapt to the changing climate. The urban areas of Ghana are grappling with the ramifications of climate change, manifested through altered precipitation patterns, temperature fluctuations, and the increased frequency of extreme weather events [16]. In Ghana’s urban areas, where approximately 56% of the population resides in cities [17], urban farmers contribute to local food production. The burgeoning field of urban agriculture, a vital component of urban livelihoods, faces formidable challenges in adapting to these climatic shifts. Urban areas in Ghana are witnessing the adverse effects of climate change, including altered rainfall patterns, prolonged droughts, and extreme temperature variations [16].

Urban farmers in Ghana are at the forefront of adopting innovative agricultural practices to navigate the challenges posed by climate change. The livestock sector, integral to urban agriculture, is not immune to the impacts of a changing climate. Urban farmers in Ghana recognize the strength in unity and have fostered community collaboration and knowledge exchange. Through communal efforts and shared experiences, they establish a robust network of resilience. This collaborative approach aligns with the principles outlined by the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) in building climate-resilient communities through collective action [18]. Urban areas in Ghana are witnessing the effects of climate change, including unpredictable rainfall patterns, temperature variations, and extreme weather events [19]. These changes pose substantial risks to agriculture, affecting both crop yields and livestock rearing, and consequently, the food security of urban populations. Urban farmers in Ghana are fostering community collaboration and knowledge sharing as integral components of their climate change adaptation strategies. Through communal efforts and shared experiences, urban farmers are creating a network of resilience that strengthens their collective capacity to cope with climate-related challenges [20]. Understanding the multifaceted strategies employed by urban farmers in Ghana is essential for crafting inclusive and effective climate change adaptation policies.

There is extant literature on urban agriculture production—crop production [21, 22] and animal production [23,24,25]. Also, the characterisation of urban agricultural production has been worked on [25]. Despite these scholarly works, the existing literature on climate change adaptation often overlooks the nuanced challenges faced by urban farmers. While rural agriculture has been a focal point of climate research, urban agriculture remains relatively underexplored, leaving a gap in understanding the unique vulnerabilities and adaptive capacities of urban farmers. Urban farmers grapple with resource constraints and technological barriers that hinder the implementation of effective climate change adaptation strategies. Access to climate-smart technologies, such as precision agriculture tools and weather-resistant seeds, is often limited, exacerbating the vulnerability of urban farming systems [4]. Inadequate policy frameworks contribute to the challenges faced by urban farmers in adapting to climate change. The absence of targeted policies that recognize the distinct needs of urban agriculture impedes the development and implementation of effective adaptation measures [26]. Social and economic disparities compound the vulnerability of urban farmers to climate change impacts. Marginalized communities, often engaged in urban agriculture, face heightened risks due to limited access to resources, insufficient infrastructure, and inadequate social support systems [16]. Addressing the gaps in our understanding of the challenges faced by urban farmers in adapting to climate change is essential for formulating targeted and effective policies. This research seeks to fill this void by systematically investigating the multifaceted challenges that hinder urban farmers in Ghana from implementing robust climate change adaptation strategies.

As we delve into the intricate strategies adopted by urban farmers in Ghana to adapt to climate change, this article provides an overview of climate change adaptation strategies among urban crop and livestock farmers in the country’s urban space. The study explores the innovative strategies and practices urban farmers employ in adapting production to climatic stressors the diverse challenges faced by urban farmers in the context of climate change. The study therefore seeks to meet the following objectives:

  1. 1.

    To understand urban farmers’ knowledge on climate change adaptation.

  2. 2.

    To explore urban farmers’ climate change adaption strategies in crop and animal production.

  3. 3.

    To identify the challenges urban farmers’ face in their climate change adaptation strategies.

This article contributes to the growing body of literature on climate change adaptation in agriculture by highlighting the experiences and perspectives of urban crop and livestock farmers in Africa particularly Ghana. In recognizing the adaptive strategies employed by urban farmers and identifying areas for intervention, policymakers, researchers, and practitioners can support the development of resilient and sustainable urban food systems in Africa. The intricate relationship between urban farmers and climate change adaptation strategies in the context of Ghana will be brought to scholarly attention and exploration.

2 Conceptual literature

Urban agriculture plays a pivotal role in enhancing food security, livelihoods, and resilience within urban contexts, particularly in the face of climate change challenges. To conceptualize the framework for understanding urban farmers’ climate change adaptation strategies, this model integrates key elements influenced by existing literature and empirical insights (see Fig. 1). Climate change vulnerabilities—at the core of the framework lies the recognition of various climate change vulnerabilities faced by urban farmers. These vulnerabilities encompass exposure to changing rainfall patterns, temperature fluctuations, extreme weather events, and resultant impacts on crop yields and livestock [26]. Acknowledging these vulnerabilities sets the stage for the development of targeted adaptation strategies. Adaptive capacity of urban farmers—urban farmers possess varying levels of adaptive capacity influenced by socio-economic factors, access to resources, and technological capabilities [13]. This dimension considers the ability of urban farmers to recognize and respond to climate change challenges effectively.

Fig. 1
figure 1

(Source: Authors Construct, 2024)

Conceptual Framework on Urban Farmers’ Adaptation to Climatic Vulnerability

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Resource constraints and technological barriers—urban farmers face resource constraints, including limited access to finance, land, and water resources, which impact their capacity to implement climate-smart technologies [27]. Technological barriers, such as a lack of knowledge about adaptive practices and limited access to climate-resilient seeds, contribute to the complexity of adaptation efforts. Policy frameworks and institutional support—Effective climate change adaptation relies on supportive policy frameworks and institutional structures that recognize the unique challenges faced by urban farmers [1]. This dimension examines the extent to which policies facilitate or hinder the implementation of adaptation strategies, emphasizing the need for inclusivity and tailored urban agriculture policies.

2.1 Social and economic equity

The framework incorporates the consideration of social and economic equity as a critical factor influencing urban farmers’ climate change adaptation. Marginalized communities engaged in urban agriculture often face heightened vulnerabilities, necessitating targeted interventions to ensure equitable adaptation outcomes [26]. Community collaboration and knowledge exchange—recognizing the strength in unity, the framework highlights the importance of community collaboration and knowledge exchange among urban farmers. Collective efforts enhance the resilience of urban farming communities by fostering shared experiences and learning [16].

2.2 Implementation of climate-smart practices

At the heart of the framework lies the implementation of climate-smart agricultural practices by urban farmers. These practices may include the adoption of drought-resistant crops, water conservation techniques, improved livestock management, and the use of precision agriculture technologies [27]. It is clear that integrating these dimensions, the conceptual framework provides a comprehensive understanding of the factors influencing urban farmers’ climate change adaptation strategies. This model offers a roadmap for researchers, policymakers, and practitioners to explore and enhance the adaptive capacity of urban agriculture in the context of climate change.

3 Materials and methods

3.1 Profile of the study area

The study was conducted in urban Wa found in the Wa Municipal of the Upper West Region of Ghana. The Municipality is located between latitudes 1° 40ʹ N to 2° 45ʹ N and longitudes 9° 32ʹ to 10°20ʹ W of the equator [17]. The total landmass of the municipality is about 234.74 km square with a population of about 200,672 and 98,493 (49%) are males while only 102,179 (51%) are females [17]. About 76% of the people have no formal education, 7% have had primary education and 17% have secondary and tertiary education [28]. The topography of the Wa Municipality is undulating with an average height between 160 and 300 m above sea level [29]. This undulating topography of highlands and lowlands conditions agricultural activities in the Wa Municipality. The vegetation looks green in the wet season but dry up in the dry season leading to regular bush burning [17]. The average lower temperature is 40 °C and maximum of 45 °C [17]. This affects the cultivation of crops and the rearing of animals. There about 70% of the population who are into agricultural production commerce (9%), industry (3%) and the remaining 18% is for other economic ventures. Despite the higher number of people (70%) that are into agriculture, only 30% are into food crops and animal production and the rest are into non-agricultural production ventures. Households’ sources of livelihood are dependent on the kind of economic activities one is in [30]. The staple food crops in the municipality are cereals like maize (Zea mays), and millets (Panicum miliaceum) as well as legumes beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) and groundnuts/cowpea (Vigna unguiculata). Other crops are tubers yams (Dioscorea alata), cassava (Manihot esculenta) and sweet potatoes (Ipomoea batatas) and vegetables Cabbage (Brassica oleracea), okra (Abelmoschus esculentus), tomatoes (Solanu lycopersicum), pepper (Capsicum annuum), pumpkin (Cucurbita) and garden eggs (Solanum melongena). Animals reared include sheep (Ovis aries), goats (Capra aegagrus hircus), cattle (Bos taurus), and pigs (Sus scrofa domesticus). Other animals also include poultry such as chicken (Gallus gallus domesticus), turkey (Meleagris), ducks (Anatidae) and guinea fowls (Numididae). Most of these animals are reared on subsistence basis [10, 19].

3.2 Study area selection

The study area, the Upper West Region in Ghana was purposively chosen due to its state of emerging cities as compared to the already bigger cities in the southern half of the country [31]. With reference to Osumanu et al. [23], the study used Wa township. In this, the area was zoned into three (3) residential zones—low, middle, and high classes according to earlier study by Laari et al. [32]. The inner core of the city also termed the low-class residential zone consists of Kanbale, Kpaguri, and Mango (cluster C). The transition zone also called, the middle-class residential area includes Sombo, Konbiehi, and Social Security and national insurance trust (SSNIT) residential area (cluster B), and the outer core also known as the high residential areas include Naporgbakole, Nakoripaani and Bilbao residential areas (cluster A) (see Fig. 2). The study area zonation was based on [23].

Fig. 2
figure 2

(Source: Author’s Construct, 2023)

Study Area Map

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3.3 Research approach and design

The research approach was based on the pragmatism philosophical perspective to give the direction and debate [33]. Therefore, this study is anchored by the pragmatist point of view that is associated with the mixed research approach. Pragmatics also gives the process of investigation for the course of this research (methodology), as an adequate research structure [34]. This is to understand both numerical implications and the factual feels of urban farmers crops and animals adaptation to the current climatic stressors [35]. The reason for a mixed approach is that it helps in getting holistic views of the study respondents on urban agricultural practices and how they are adapting to climate change and variability. Though the study could use either the quantitative or qualitative approach, both are combined to give comprehensive knowledge in the research [36]. Furthermore, this study employs a cross-sectional survey design in data collection and analysis based on a sequential triangulation. The cross-sectional survey design gives a snapshot view of the responses in a study. In social research disciplines, a survey remains one of the most suitable designs even though its applicability transcends to include medical research and other behavioral change studies [37].

3.4 Sample frame and sample size determination

The study targeted all households within the demarcated area of the Wa township. The study population was ascertained through a listing exercise in a serpentine order which yielded about three hundred and sixty-four (364) households (see Table 3). Listing exercise was employed to know the exact number of urban households that are into crops and animals’ production as there was no data on these farmers at the time of the study. This was done through a head count of the households based on the type of urban farming—either crops, animals or both crops and animals’ producers. The study termed a household as group of people who share the same cooking arrangements together [17]. The sample size is the fraction of the respondents that is used to represent the entire study population [24, 29]. There were three hundred and sixty-four (364) households (Table 3). Listed within the study jurisdiction; this figure was extracted from a larger data set listed which included both households who engaged in urban production activities and those who do not. Therefore, using this as a proxy, the sample size was calculated using [38] sample size formula. This is given as;

$$n = \frac{N}{1 + N\left( e \right)2}$$

where n is the sample size for the study, N is the the sample population of the study, 1 is the constant, e is the margin of error for the sample mean.

Therefore, in this study,

N = 364.

e = 95% or an error margin of 0.05 confidence level.

$$n=\frac{364}{1+364(0.05)2}$$
$$n=\frac{364}{1+364(0.0025)}$$

\(=\frac{364}{1.91}\) = 190.57 = 191.

Therefore, the study used a sample size of one hundred and nighty-one (191) urban farmer households. This was distributed proportionally across all the clusters namely; low, middle, and high classes (Table 1).

Table 1 Sample frame and sample size distribution.
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3.5 Sampling strategy, methods and tools of data collection

The study used both probability and non-probability sampling strategies, commonly found in a mixed research approach [39]. Simple random sampling procedure as a probability was used to select responding urban households of three thousand sixty-two (362) from the listing exercise of the study which yielded one thousand six hundred and sixty-nine (1669). For the serially listed household, a simple random sampling method was used to obtain the sample size (see Table 1). The study therefore employed a household survey method of collecting the quantitative data because of its cost-effectiveness [39]. The survey process was in the form of face-to-face personal interviews which give the best responses as probing for clarity is possible [40]. The respondents in the survey were the household heads or spouses or any elderly person who knows much about their urban crops and animal production activities. This was done through structured questionnaire administration in the form of Computer Assisted Personal Interviewing (CAPI) mounted on Kobo platform to reduce cost and time in data collection.

Non-probability sampling technique in the form of purposive was applied in selecting the respondents for collecting data in the qualitative phase of the study. This is appropriate as knowledgeable people were chosen to share their expertise in urban agricultural practices. Multiple data collection methods were used in this phase to ensure data triangulation [41]. For the qualitative phase, the population of the study included 4 officials of the crops and animals section of the MoFA, and data related to extension and veterinary services given to crop and animal producers in the urban centers was ascertained. Also, climate support services such as information and good agronomic practices in the era of climate change were key. To add to the above, the Key informants included 9 urban farmers who were selected to get insight into farmers’ climate change adaptation strategies in the urban areas. These farmers were identified during the listing process and they happened to be farmers with experience in urban farming. This experience is considered for urban farming households who have been in urban food production for not less than 5 years. This method is necessary for gathering information from experts [42] in the areas of crop farming and animal-rearing activities, farmers’ climate change adaptation strategies and support to farmers in the urban space. An interview guide was used in the data collection process. Non-participant observation was also employed to gain visual evidence necessary for the study findings [43]. The purpose of this method was to observe the agricultural practices urban farmers are employing and how these translate into climate change adaptation. Though, self-administered interviews could be used many of the respondents are illiterates and the research assistants have to translate the questionnaire from English Language to “Dagaare”.

3.6 Data analysis and presentation

Statistical analysis was used in the quantitative phase. The statistical analysis is important as it gives a numerical understanding of the research findings [44]. This was done using Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS version 20.0). In this, descriptive statistics in the form of frequencies and percentages, cross-tabulations, including inferential statistics such as chi-square tests for significance were done. The results were presented in the form of tables, graphs, and figures. Further analysis was done manually on the qualitative data based on themes and content to support the quantitative analysis to give an in-depth understanding. The results were presented in the form of narratives, direct quotation from the respondents and paraphrasing of responses.

This study followed an ethical process. These included seeking of informed consent from the participants on the purpose, procedures, and benefits of the study, and their right to withdraw at any time. Also, respect for the privacy of the participants was followed and their personal information is kept confidential. Data was anonymized in the process.

4 Results

4.1 Urban farmers’ climate change knowledge and sources of adaptation information

The result indicated that the majority, about 93%, of the urban households that are into urban agriculture production know the current climate change situation. In line with the above scenario, about 93% do accept that climate change stressors are having negative consequences on agricultural production in the urban neighbourhood. It was clear that urban farmers obtain climate change adaptation strategies for their production from several sources. Friends and agricultural service workers play instrumental roles as sources of climate change adaptation information for urban farmers. The results revealed that the majority (about 95%) of urban farmers, rely on friends and neighbours as well as agricultural services workers to get information on agricultural practices that are climate resilient. Again, the media is critical in soliciting climate change adaptation information. About 66% of the urban farmers get climate change adaptation strategy information from television programming and radio broadcasting which is only 15%. In addition, farmers’ observation does not give them insight into how to adapt their agricultural activities to the current climatic stressors (see Table 2).

Table 2 Urban farmers’ perception on climate change effects and sources of information (N = 191).
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From Table 3, the results showed that farmers who are within the age category of 31–40 years, representing about 40% do know about climate change. This is closely followed by farmers within the age bracket of 40–50 years, representing about 37%. The age of urban farmers is not significant in terms of knowledge of climate change at an alpha 0.05 (p-value = 0.931 > 0.05). The result further indicated that there is weak relationship between farmers’ age and their knowledge of climate change (Cramer’s V = 0.06 > 0.05). On urban farmers’ educational level and their ability to get some climate change knowledge, farmers who have attained a tertiary educational status get more information than those with secondary education (24%), no formal education (20%) and some basic education (11%). This result is insignificant (p-value = 0.716 > 0.05).

Table 3 The significant level of urban farmers’ knowledge of climate change.
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Therefore, there is a weak association between urban farmers’ educational status and their ability to get information on climate change (Cramer’s V = 0.08 > 0.05). Also, the result portrayed that about 74% male urban farmers have some knowledge on climate change. However, there is an insignificant relationship between the gender of urban farmers and their ability to get information on climate change at an alpha 0.05 (p-value = 0.034 > 0.05). Further analysis showed a weak association between urban farmer gender and their climate change knowledge (Cramer’s V = 0.06 > 0.05). From Table 4, the data showed that urban farmers who have no formal education get information on climate change from television, representing about 37% while about 22% of farmers with secondary and some basic education source climate change information from television. This is closely followed by those urban farmers who have attained tertiary education, representing about 20%. These findings are statistically significant at an alpha 0.05 (p-value = 0.00 < 0.05). There is a strong relationship between the educational attainment of urban farmers and television as a source of climate change adaptation information (Cramer’s V = 0.395 > 0.25).

Table 4 Sources of Climate Change Information by Educational Attainment and Gender.
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Similarly, the results further explained that in terms of gender, females representing about 78% get information on climate change adaption strategies from their friends and neighbours while males, (about 22%) get the information from friends and neighbours. The results are statistically significant at an alpha of 0.05 (p-value = 0.037 < 0.05). The findings further depict a strong relationship between urban farmer's gender and getting information from friends and neighbours (Cramer’s V = 0.158 > 0.15) (see Table 4).

Further, interviews with stakeholders’ revealed that the Ministry of Food and Agriculture (MoFA) is critical in the promotion of urban agriculture. The MoFA through its agricultural extension workers in Ghana and particularly, in the Wa Municipality has several functions to support farmers and promote rural development. These functions include facilitating knowledge transfer. Agricultural extension workers act as intermediaries between research organizations and farmers, helping to improve farmers’ knowledge and understanding of agricultural practices. Another function is the provision of technical assistance. They offer technical guidance and support to farmers, helping them implement modern and effective farming techniques. The extension workers also conduct training programs within their areas of operation within the municipality to enhance farmers’ skills and knowledge. It was also discovered that the MoFA through its agencies like the crop and animals’ departments supports farmers’ technological adoption and dissemination of information. They assist farmers in adopting new technologies and practices, such as improved seeds, irrigation systems, and post-harvest handling techniques, to increase productivity and income. They also play a crucial role in providing relevant and up-to-date information to farmers on topics such as crop production, pest management, soil fertility, and climate-smart agriculture. A respondent shared the following:

“…Our roles in agriculture are many; we help to plan agricultural activities in the municipality, collaborating with agricultural agencies, NGOs, and other stakeholders to develop and implement programs and policies that benefit farmers…” (Key Informant Interview, 2022).

However, it was clear that agricultural extension services are limited to only the rural farmers in the municipality. The findings revealed that urban crop farmers do not benefit from in-person assistance from agricultural extension services as compared to rural crop farmers. However, the institutional level findings indicate that mass media programming such as the use of radio is instrumental in educating farmers in general, which the urban farmers also stand the chance to benefit from. This means that urban farmers practically do have the opportunity to have direct benefit from extension services as ascertained in the study. The results added that urban farmers who are into animal production get assistance from the Veterinary Department of MoFA. The department with time undertakes outreach exercises to vaccinate all categories of farm animals and educate farmers on the safekeeping of animals. Due to this familiarity, urban farmers call for veterinary service through phone calls the needs arise. In line with this, an informant said:

“… Agricultural extension services to urban crop farmers are limited because the urban farmers are not into large-scale production which makes our attention less on them…” (Key Informant Interview, 2022).

Another respondent said:

“Aside from our routine outreach exercises, farmers themselves call on us to visit their animals. The outreach is seasonal, that is during the harmattan and raining seasons when animals are susceptible to extreme weather conditions” (Key Informant Interview, 2022).

4.2 Urban crop production and climate adaptation strategies

The study underscored urban farmers’ climate change adaption strategies employed in crop production. These measures are categorized into soil moisture conservation strategies and soil fertility management measures. About 92% of urban farmers indicated that they employ ridging as a way to conserve soil moisture. This is followed by the application of mulching, representing about 78% of the responses. Aside, the ridging and mulching, cover cropping appears as one of the strategies which about 41% of the urban farmers’ employ. Cover cropping is also done, but only 16% of the farmers employ this strategy (see Fig. 3).

Fig. 3
figure 3

(Source: Field Observation, 2022)

Urban Farmers Soil Moisture Conservation Strategies

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It was also observed that farmers employ ridging as a soil moisture conservation strategy on urban farms during the land preparations stage. These ridges are done with bounds around the boundaries which prevent run-off water from the field (see Fig. 4).

Fig. 4
figure 4

(Source: Field observation, 2022)

Ridges to Prevent Run-off Water on an Urban Farm

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In terms of soil fertility management, the quantitative results showed that there are multiple strategies urban farmers employ. These are the use of crop residues, manure, and compost. About 85% of the respondents indicated that they use crop residues, about 83% use manure, and 78% use compost (see Fig. 5).

Fig. 5
figure 5

(Source: Field Work, 2022)

Urban Farmers Soil Fertility Management Strategies

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From the field observation, it was confirmed that urban farmers do not use more chemical fertilizers to improve soil fertility on their farms in the era of climate change. However, crop residues and manure from animals dropping are used on their farms (see Fig. 6).

Fig. 6
figure 6

(Source: Field Observation, 2022)

Crop Residues and Animals Manure use on Urban Farm.

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From Table 5, the results showed that urban farmers generally cultivate local or indigenous varieties of seeds, representing about 57% of the responses. Other urban farmers also grow improved seeds, thus about 24% of the responses while only 17% grow hybrid seeds. Just 0.7% of urban farmers favoured the growing of both improved and hybrid crop varieties. The seeds grown by urban farmers are their seeds, representing about 45% and that of seeds bought from agro-chemical shops represents about 35%. This is followed by those farmers who get their seeds from family and relatives representing about 21%. In terms of yields, the results indicated that many of the urban farmers perceived high yield of their crops representing about 52% and those who said they get average yield are about 47% and just 1.2% of these urban farmers perceived crop yield not being good.

Table 5 Urban farmers choices in varieties and sources of seeds for production (N = 191).
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4.3 Urban animal production and climate adaptation strategies

The study results revealed that urban farmers rear exotic/foreign breeds of animals representing about 37%, followed by those who keep local/indigenous breeds of animals representing about 34% of the responses. Again, about 29% of the urban farmers keep both exotic and indigenous breeds of animals. To meet the feed needs of their animals, urban farmers scout for feed from a variety of sources. The first source is the open market where 46% of urban farmers buy feed from. This is followed by those who depend on their own supply of feed which constitutes about 36% of the farmers; others (about 18%) also obtain feed as a gift from friends and relatives (see Table 6). Driving animal production adaptation to extreme climatic or weather events, urban farmers rear different breeds of animals and acquire feed from different sources aiming at increasing production. Therefore, the study assessed farmers’ opinions on animal production levels. In this, it was revealed that urban farmers expressed an average production level of their animals which constituted about 45% and those who said the animals’ production situation is good represent 33%. However, 22% of the farmers said animal production is not good. The results again revealed that majority, about 84% of urban animal producers protect their animals against climate change-related diseases using different strategies. The strategies include vaccinating the animals, giving animals pills, disinfecting the pens, and spraying the animals with insecticides. The majority (91%) of urban farmers vaccinate their animals very often. This is statistically significant at an alpha 0.05 (p-value = 0.001 < 0.05). This depicts a very strong interrelationship between urban farmers using vaccination as a treatment method for animals and adapting animals to climate change (Cramer’s V = 0.248 > 0.25).

Table 6 Urban farmers’ choices in animals breed and sources of feed (N = 191).
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In the same way, 93% of urban farmers often give their animals pills as a way of treating their animals. This is statistically significant (p-value = 0.001 > 0.05). This showed a strong interrelationship between farmers’ choice of treatment methods using pills and adapting animals to climate change effects (Cramer’s V = 0.296 > 0.25). Similarly, 95% of animal farmers very often disinfect their animal pens as a way to protect animals against disease infections. This is statistically significant (p-value = 0.014 < 0.05). This also appeared to present a very strong interrelationship between the disinfection of animal pens as a treatment method and adapting animals to climatic effects (Cramer’s V = 0.204 < 0.25) (see Table 7). Again, 94% of urban farmers say they very often treat their animals by spraying them with insecticides. Urban farmers spraying their animals with insecticides as a way of keeping them healthy is statistically significant (p-value = 0.015 < 0.05). Therefore, there is a very strong interrelationship between spraying animals with insecticides and handling farm animals in urban areas in the era of climate change and its associated stressors. The effectiveness of the multiple treatment methods urban farmers employ depends on the sources of the treatments. The results pointed to the Veterinary Department of MoFA and self-medication as the sources of the treatments for farm animals representing about 42% each. However, this is statistically insignificant at an alpha 0.05 (p-value = 0.386 > 0.05). Therefore, there is a moderate interrelationship between the animals' treatment methods used and the sources of the treatment (Cramer’s V = 0.100 ≥ 0.10).

Table 7 Urban animals farmers methods and sources of treatments.
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5 Discussions

The study employed a mixed methods explore urban farmers’ climate change adaptation strategies in recent times. This is to understand farmers’ climate change knowledge, source of climate information and farming practices that are climate friendly in the production of crop and animals within the urban neighbourhood.

5.1 Urban farmers’ climate change knowledge

Urban farmers shared knowledge about climate change. Urban farmers have access to information on climate change because the urban area serves as an incentive to farmers. The urban environment has all the necessities such as access to telephone services, electricity, and mass media (radio and television) which serve as sources of information for urban dwellers including urban farmers. The climate change knowledge of urban farmers is taken from diversified sources. They source this knowledge basically from their friend and neighbours and agricultural extension service workers. Others include the mass media such as television and radio as well as farmers’ observations. This is in line with the work of [38] who concluded that sources of information available to farmers in Ghana include the Ministry of Food and Agriculture (MoFA), radios, and agricultural extension officers. Also, this supports the work of [39] who stated that these sources aim to provide farmers with agricultural knowledge, information on best practices, market information, weather forecasts, and access to government programs and services. This is not practicable in the urban environment, especially in Africa with disorganized urban farmers and low organizations and researchers' interest. This confirms that there is limited information specifically addressing sources of information for farmers in urban communities in Ghana [20]. From the results, urban farmers’ age and gender do not determine their ability to get climate change adaptation information to guide crop and animal production. This is associated with differences in an urban environment as compared to the rural environment. Most people in the urban neighbourhood are exposed to several sources of information and might not necessarily be guided by their age and gender though in a rural environment, it is possible.

5.2 Soil management and climate change adaptation strategies in crop production

Urban farmers adopt land preparation strategies with the aim of conserving water on their urban farms. They prepare their farmlands using ridges, mulching, and to some extent cover cropping. This implies that to sustain farming under unpredictable rainfall from climate change and variability, these farmers prepare their farmland in a way that will contain water after sometimes without rain [42]. This will support the resiliency of crops under irregular rainfall. The farmers can also implement efficient water management techniques to cope with water scarcity or excessive rainfall. This may involve the use of rainwater harvesting systems, drip irrigation, or water-efficient techniques to optimize water use and reduce wastage [45]. Urban farmers adopt soil conservation practices such as mulching, cover cropping, and composting to enhance soil health and fertility. For soil fertility management, inorganic fertilizers usage happened to be minimal. However, they adopt the use of organic fertilizers such as crop residues, manure and compost, and household wastes [46]. This suggests that in terms of soil fertility management, employ integrated crops and animal fertility management systems [47]. Animal manure is used to fertilize urban farms to improve soil nutrients in the era of climate change where nutrient loss can result from soil erosion resulting from excessive rains [48]. This supports the assertion that farmers implementing efficient irrigation techniques, such as drip irrigation or precision watering, can optimize water use and conserve water resources [49]. This helps crops withstand drought conditions and ensures their productivity. However, in some instances, this applies to farmers that are found within an environment that favours irrigational practices, especially in urban settings. The findings support the work of [15, 16] who asserted that soil conservation practices like conservation tillage, cover cropping, and rotational grazing help maintain soil health and fertility. Healthy soil can better withstand extreme weather events and retain moisture, supporting crop growth.

Aside from soil moisture and nutrient management strategies, urban farmers improve crop production by planting multiple indigenous and improved crop varieties to adapt to climate change impacts. The use of indigenous and improved varieties is climate change adaptation strategy because, in the situation where one variety fails, the other could be a buffer. This has been confirmed in the extant literature as climate change adaptation strategies [50]. These seeds are farmers’ seeds and are bought from agro-chemical shops. This means that farmers use their seeds which are the indigenous variety and the improved variety is obtained from the agrochemical shops [51]. This means improving farmers’ local knowledge and good seed keeping and encouraging agro-chemical dealers to operate within the means of urban farmers in terms of affordable seeds. Farmers explained that crop production yield is encouraging despite the current climatic effects. However, it is important to note that the specific adaptation measures employed by urban farmers may vary depending on their location, available resources, and the specific challenges posed by climate change in their area [19]. This finding supports the recent idea that despite the climate change challenges farmers face they can adjust farming practices to increase production of food crops [5]. Even though urban farmers use manure, compost, and mulching just a few examples of basic agricultural inputs that may not be as easily accessible as they are in rural agricultural communities [52]. However, some farm and gardening materials are becoming increasingly accessible in urban areas as demand rises. Urban farmers who cultivate crops and raise animals can employ various climate change adaptation measures. This supports the work of [5] on adaptation measures employed by urban farmers including crop diversification. Urban farmers can diversify their crop selection to include a variety of plant species that are resilient to different climatic conditions. This helps to reduce the vulnerability of their agricultural systems to climate-related risks such as extreme temperatures, drought, or heavy rainfall [13].

Overall, the findings suggest that the functions of agricultural extension workers in Ghana revolve around knowledge transfer, technical assistance, information dissemination, training, planning support, technology adoption, resource facilitation, and institutional support to improve farming practices and enhance rural and urban development. Evidence from the study showed that urban crop producers do not access to onsite agriculture extension services which is critical in giving farmers knowledge on climate change adaptation strategies. However, agricultural extension officers play a crucial role in disseminating climate change adaptation information to farmers. For instance, it is argued that extension officers are recognized as key sources of knowledge and guidance for farmers seeking to adapt to changing climatic conditions [53]. The in accessibility of agriculture extension services for crop production by urban farmers means farmers workshops, training sessions, and one-on-one interactions on adapting their production to climatic stressors. Meanwhile, these officers provide valuable information on sustainable farming practices, crop selection, water management techniques, and other strategies to mitigate the impacts of climate change on agriculture [54]. Furthermore, this gives less attention to the research community on urban crop producers climate change adaptation. Extension officers are often the primary link between research institutions, governmental agencies, and farmers, bridging the gap between scientific knowledge and practical implementation in the field [55]. Their close relationship with local farming communities enables them to tailor adaptation strategies to specific needs and challenges, thereby enhancing their effectiveness [53].

5.3 Climate change adaption strategies in livestock production

Highlighting urban farmers’ livestock production, there are interesting findings within the confines of climate change adaptations. Adopting adaptive livestock management practices, such as rotational grazing, can help sustain grazing lands and reduce overgrazing. Proper nutrition, health care, and shelter can enhance animal resilience to extreme temperatures and diseases [56]. Climate change creates systems for pests, diseases, and extreme weather events that lead to a reduction in animal production. Farmers decide on the animal breeds to rear, livestock producers can make informed decisions by accessing climate information and forecasts. This enables them to adjust breeding schedules, optimize resource allocation, and reduce climate-related risks. It is good to note that climate change adaptation measures may vary depending on the specific climate conditions, location, and agricultural practices in different regions. Farmers resort to appropriate feeds and sources to enable safe animal producers from feeding climate change-related problems. Urban farmers can adopt climate-smart livestock management practices to adapt to changing climatic conditions. This may include adjusting feeding strategies, providing shade or shelter, and ensuring access to clean water to mitigate the impacts of heat stress on animals [13].

The study revealed that urban farmers manage their animals’ health from climate change through vaccination, giving animals pills, disinfecting animals’ pens, and spraying farm animals with insecticides. In terms of animal treatment, it is essential to consider the well-being and health of the animals in the face of climate change. This may involve providing proper shelter and ensuring adequate ventilation to reduce the impacts of extreme weather events [57]. Additionally, farmers can adapt their animal feeding practices to ensure the animals receive appropriate nutrition and hydration during periods of heat stress or drought. It is worth noting that specific adaptation measures for animal treatment in urban farming may vary depending on the local context and available resources [9]. The finding supports the fact that extension services involve the dissemination of information, knowledge, and technical assistance to farmers to enhance their productivity and sustainability [9]. However, farmers who are into animal production get extension services more than in crop production. In urban areas, extension workers play a crucial role in providing urban farmers with guidance and information tailored to their specific needs. They work closely with farmer groups and communities to address their challenges and help them adopt best practices in urban farming [58].

The findings suggest that urban farmers have access to veterinary services in animals’ production in the form of treatment of animals. This means that animal husbandry practices can adapt animals to extreme weather events are guided by veterinary services which play a crucial role in providing climate change adaptation information within the context of animal husbandry and veterinary medicine. This supports the assertion that veterinary officers as key sources of knowledge for livestock farmers in adapting to changing climatic conditions [55]. The findings again support the idea that one of the primary responsibilities of veterinary officers is to educate farmers about climate-resilient livestock management practices, such as improved housing, breeding selection, and disease prevention measures [59]. The extension workers typically collaborate with local government agencies, agricultural departments, and other relevant organizations to ensure that the information provided is in line with the city's agriculture and food policies [60]. These extension services can cover a wide range of topics, including crop selection and cultivation techniques, pest and disease management, soil fertility enhancement, water management, and post-harvest handling [61]. This support can also contribute to the overall development of sustainable urban agriculture and food security in urban areas. Overall, the provision of extension services to urban farmers is crucial in empowering them with the necessary skills and knowledge to thrive in urban agriculture, ensuring the sustainability and productivity of their farming activities [9].

5.4 Conclusions and policy recommendations

In conclusion, urban crop and livestock farmers in the face of climate change have demonstrated resilience and ingenuity by implementing various adaptation strategies to safeguard their livelihoods and enhance food security in urban areas. Through a combination of innovative practices and technology adoption, urban farmers have shown their ability to mitigate the impacts of climate change on agricultural production. There is diversity of adaptation strategies employed by urban farmers, including the adoption of drought-resistant crop varieties, soil moisture and nutrients management techniques, and diversified livestock rearing. Indigenous and improved crop varieties and exotic breeds of animals are produced by urban farmers under the current climatic conditions. Soil fertility management employed by the farmers includes the use of crop residues, animal manure, and compost. Vaccination and/or pen disinfection through self-medication and/or Veterinary Officers are used to treat the farm animals. However, despite their resilience, urban farmers are challenged with the inaccessibility of extension services in crop production. To promote urban agricultural production, Governmental and Non-Governmental Organizations as well as Civil Society Organizations should integrate capacity-building initiatives, training programmes, and extension services into urban agricultural policies which are critical to enhancing farmers’ knowledge and skills in climate change adaptation. In adherence to this policy recommendation and fostering an enabling environment for urban crop and livestock farmers, governments can support the development of resilient and sustainable urban food systems that contribute to climate change adaptation, food security, and inclusive development in urban areas. The study recommends that further research should focus on urban infrastructural development and urban food production systems.