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Sensing lead ions in water: a comprehensive review on strategies and sensor materials

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Abstract

It is well-known fact that elevated lead ions (Pb2+), the third most toxic among heavy metal ions in aqueous systems, pose a threat to human health and aquatic ecosystems when they exceed permissible limits. Pb2+ is commonly found in industrial waste and fertilizers, contaminating water sources and subsequently entering the human body, causing various adverse health conditions. Unlike being expelled, Pb2+ accumulates within the body, posing potential health risks. The harmful impact of presence of Pb2+ in water have prompted researchers to diligently work toward maintaining water quality. Recognizing the importance of Pb2+, this review article makes a sincere and effective effort to address the issues associated with Pb2+. This overview article gives insights into various sensing approaches to detect Pb2+ in water using different sensing materials, including 2-dimensional materials, thiols, quantum dots, and polymers. Herein, different sensing approaches such as electrochemical, optical, field effect transistor-based, micro-electromechanical system-based, and chemi resistive are thoroughly explained. Field effect transistor-based and chemiresistive work on similar principles and are compared on the basis of their fabrication processes and sensing capabilities. In conclusion, future directions for chemiresistive sensors in Pb2+ detection are proposed, emphasizing their simplicity, portability, straightforward functionality, and ease of fabrication. Notably, it sheds light on various thiol and ligand compounds and coupling strategies utilized in Pb2+ detection. This comprehensive study is expected to benefit individuals engaged in Pb2+ detection.

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Acknowledgements

We want to express our gratitude for the research funding received from the Department of Science and Technology, Government of India, for our sponsored project titled “Design and Development of MEMS-based Portable Platform with Ion-Selective Self-Assembled Monolayer (SAMs) for the Detection of Toxic Heavy Metal Ions (HMIs) in Ground Water” Sanction No :DST/TDT/DDP-60/2021.

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  1. Department of Electronics Engineering, Sardar Vallabhbhai National Institute of Technology, Ichchhanath, Surat, 395007, Gujarat, India

    Anju Gupta & Anand Darji

  2. Department of Biomedical Engineering, Shri Ramdeobaba College of Engineering and Management, Ramdeo Tekdi, Nagpur, 440013, Maharashtra, India

    Anju Gupta

  3. Department of Electrical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Hyderabad, Kandi, Sangareddy, Hyderabad, 502284, Telangana, India

    Dinesh Rotake

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  1. Anju Gupta
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  2. Dinesh Rotake
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Correspondence to Dinesh Rotake.

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Gupta, A., Rotake, D. & Darji, A. Sensing lead ions in water: a comprehensive review on strategies and sensor materials. ANAL. SCI. 40, 997–1021 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s44211-024-00547-1

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