1 Introduction

Concrete is the material that people in the world consume the most, after food and water. To make it, the proper ratios of cement, fine aggregate, coarse aggregate, and water are mixed together [1]. The mixture hardens into a rock when it is placed in molds and allowed to set. This hardening is the result of the cement and water's chemical reaction, which strengthens the concrete over time. The proportions of the specified concrete components, including cement, water, fine aggregates, coarse aggregates and mixtures, as applicable, must be determined. It is the process of defining the combination of components needed to produce concrete that has the desired qualities. The type and quantity of cement, water, and aggregates, as well as their mixing, placing, compaction, and curing, all affect the compressive strength of hardened concrete, which is commonly used as a stand-in for other characteristics. Many academics have conducted studies in this area, most notably Nwofor et al. [2 and 3]. Their inquiry was concentrated on a comparison of the strength of concrete made from various fine particles and using crushed and uncrushed coarse aggregate in concrete mixes. The goal of this project is to employ grit to find alternatives to river sand. The study came to the conclusion that using grit in construction is more cost-effective since it provides the highest level of usage, despite the fact that it is a frequent industrial waste. The study shown that uncrushed aggregate provided the best compressive strength at 28 days when compared to the results of crushed aggregate. Ejiogu et al. [4] presented an ACI, IS (Indian Standards), and DOE methodologies are being investigated for use in creating and comparing concrete mix designs. A comparison examination of a few different concrete mix design approaches based on cost-effectiveness was presented by Demissew, A. [5]. Ismail, Sallehan, et al. [6] examined the “mechanical strength and drying shrinkage properties of concrete containing treated coarse recycled concrete aggregates (RCA).” The authors presented a method for combining two different surface treatment methods to change the coarse RCA’s surface structure. In this work, coarse RCA are first treated by soaking in 0.5 mol (M) of hydrochloric acid (HCl). The research found that combining these two surface-treatment techniques has a positive effect because it modifies the RCA surface while also improving its qualities [7]. A comparison study using the DOE and ACI methods for determining mix proportions for high-strength concrete was carried out by Zanwar et al. [8]. The study discovered that, in comparison to the DOE approach, the ACI 211.4R-08 method provides high strength [8]. S. Zitouni et al. [9] investigated the effects of the type and distribution of particle sizes in rolled and crushed coarse aggregates on the physico-mechanical properties of concrete. The purpose of this study is to determine the effects on concrete mixture properties like compressive strength and workability of using 3/8 mm fraction rolled coarse aggregates in place of 3/8 mm fraction crushed coarse aggregates in different percentages (0%, 8%, 16%, 20%, 24%, and 40%) while keeping the percentage of 8/15 mm fraction crushed coarse aggregates constant at 60%. Additionally, the study aims to determine the ideal dosage of 3/8 mm fraction rolled coarse aggregates in concrete with maximum compressive strength. Gravel that has been both rolled and crushed. Mohd Ahmed et al. [10] submitted a paper outlining the fundamental ideas and performing a qualitative and cost-effective comparison of three widely used concrete mix design methods: the fineness modulus technique, the ACI mix design method, and the DOE method. According to the findings of this study, the mix design methodologies' fundamental design parameters need to be adjusted in order to improve quality and cost-effectiveness. By casting and testing concrete cubes at 14 and 28 days of age, Deepak Kumar et al. [11] offered a comparative analysis of ACI and BIS methods of concrete mix design and a demonstration of the cracking pattern of concrete specimens. The investigation found that the compressive strengths of specimens prepared using both procedures showed significant variances. Additionally, it was shown that the cracking patterns of specimens cracked using both techniques are strikingly comparable. The effects of different types of coarse aggregate on the hardened characteristics of concrete were examined in research by Ash-Shu'ara Marafa Salman et al. [12]. In this study, crushed granite was substituted for two coarse aggregates uncrushed gravel (UG) and crushed granite (CG) at incremental rates of 20% by weight of the total coarse aggregate from 0 to 100%. A water-to-cement ratio of 0.65 and a mix ratio of 1:2:4 were applied. Mustafa Yavuz ÇELİK et.al. [13] presented a research article on the characterization of crushed natural stone aggregates. The study concluded that crushed marble concrete has the highest workability, followed by crushed basalt and crushed andesite aggregates. The effect of coarse aggregate on concrete properties were investigated by Faruk Patowary et. al. [14] and Getnet Tadesse Abegaz et. al. [15].

2 Mix design data

The steps of designing concrete mixes using the American method (ACI) and the British method (DoE) for crushed and uncrushed coarse aggregate to produce concrete cubes of compressive strength M25, M30 and M40 of 7 and 28 days of ages are as follows:

Step1: Determine mean strength of the target.

Step 2: Choose water-cement ratio.

Step 3: Calculate water Content.

Step4: Determine cement Content.

Step 5: Find coarse Aggregate.

Step 6: Find fine Aggregate.

M25 means mix ratio of cement, sand and aggregate resulting in compressive strength of 25 N/mm2 (or MPa) at 28 days of age, and so on for M30 and M40.

2.1 ACI method

Table 1 shows a summary of materials quantities calculated by mix design using ACI method for 7 and 28 days of age using crushed coarse aggregate (ACI does not use uncrushed aggregate), for various types of strength. Standard deviation (S) = 4, Max size of aggregate = 20 mm, Fineness Modulus of sand (F.M) = 2.99 (from grading of sand using sieve analysis).

Table 1 Concrete mix constituents calculated by ACI
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2.2 DoE method

Tables 2 and 3 show a summary of materials quantities calculated by mix design using DoE method, for 7 and 28 days of age using various types of strength. Standard deviation (S) = 4,

Table 2 Concrete mix constituents calculated by DoE for concrete compressive strength at 7 days of age
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Table 3 Concrete mix constituents calculated by DoE for concrete compressive strength of 28 days of age
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Max size of aggregate = 20 mm, Fineness Modulus of sand (F.M) = 2.99 (from grading of sand using sieve analysis).

Proper water-cement ratios (w/c ratio), used in this study, have been calculated according to the type of design method and type of coarse aggregate as shown in the Table 4.

Table 4 W/C ratios calculated by ACI and DoE at 7 and 28 days of age
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3 Materials and methods

The materials used in this research to prepare the concrete mixture are water, cement, crushed coarse aggregate, unrushed coarse aggregate and fine aggregate.

3.1 Cement

Ordinary Portland cement from the South Cement Company (Jazan region) is used in the research, which meets the specifications of ASTM C 150 [16 and 17]. Cement mortar consistency, setting time and compressive strength have been tested in accordance with ASTM C 191-01 [18].

3.2 Concrete aggregate

Some natural aggregate deposits, sometimes known as “pit-run gravel,” are a combination of gravel and sand that can be used directly into concrete with minimal preparation. Natural sand and gravel are typically removed via dredging or excavation from the bottom of a pit, river, lake, or ocean. Large-size gravel, boulders, cobbles, and quarry rock are crushed to create crushed stone (Fig. 1). Before being utilized in real-world applications, both crushed and uncrushed aggregates must fulfill a number of specifications. Among these are the absence of absorbed chemicals, clay coatings, and other fine materials in concentrations that can impair the hydration and bonding properties of the cement paste. The four aggregates that are most frequently utilized are air-cooled blast furnace slag, crushed stone, gravel, and sand. Fresh mixed normal-weight concrete with a density (unit weight) of 2200–2400 kg/m3 (140–164 lb/ft3) is produced by combining these aggregates [19].

Fig. 1
figure 1

Types of course aggregate [19]

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For best technical usage, aggregates have to meet a few requirements: they have to be free of absorbed chemicals, clays, and other materials, and they have to be clean, hard, solid, and long-lasting.

Tiny particles in amounts that could influence the cement paste’s hydration and bonding. A comprehensive categorization of an aggregate’s granular dispersion ascertained using sieve analysis (ASTM C 136) [20]. The concrete mixes utilized in this investigation were created using ACI [21] and DoE [22].

3.3 Water

Tap water was used in all concrete mixtures carried out in this study.

4 Results and discussion

4.1 Results of initial tests of materials

From Fig. 2

Fig. 2
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Grading of fine aggregate

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D10 = 0.29 D30 = 0.66 D60 = 0.99.

Cu = D60/D10 = 3.41 Cu > 1 well graded.

\({\text{Cc}}\, = \frac{{{\text{D}}30^{ \wedge } 2}}{{{\text{D}}60 \times {\text{D}} 10}}\, = \,\left( {0.66 \times 0.66} \right)/\left( {0.99 \times 0.29} \right)\, = \,1.51 \, 1\, < \,{\text{Cc}}\, < \,3{\text{ Smooth curve }}\left( {\text{well graded}} \right).\) 

Fineness modulus (FM) of fine aggregate is calculated as.

FM = 299/100 = 2.99.

For estimating the ratio of fine to coarse aggregates in concrete mixtures, fine aggregate FM is helpful (ASTM C 136) [20].

D10 = 6.89 D30 = 9.88 D60 = 11.35.

Cu = D60/D10 = 1.65 Cu > 1 well graded.

\({\text{Cc}}\, = \,\frac{{{\text{D}}30^{ \wedge } 2}}{{{\text{D}}60 \times {\text{D}}10}} = \, \left( {9.88 \times 9.88} \right)/\left( {11.35 \times 6.89} \right)\, = \,1.24 \, 1\, < \,{\text{Cc}}\, < \,3{\text{ Smooth curve }}({\text{well graded}}).\)

The results in Figs. 2 and 3 show that fine and coarse aggregate were well graded. This grading will lead to achieve good concrete properties.

Fig. 3
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Grading of crushed coarse aggregate

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4.2 Results of compressive strength tests using ACI method for crushed aggregate at 7 and 28 days of age

Referring to Fig. 4, formula (1) can be obtained:

$${\text{y }} = \, - \, 0.00{\text{13x}}^{{3}} + \, 0.{\text{1424x}}^{{2}} - { 4}.{\text{2829x }} + { 57}.{825}$$
(1)
Fig. 4
figure 4

Relationship between average compressive strength using crushed coarse aggregate at M25, M30 and M40 for 7 and 28 days of age using ACI method

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The coefficient of determination (R2) for this polynomial formula is:

R2 = 0.991.Where, y is Compressive strength at 7 days of age. x is Compressive strength at 28 days of age.

Formula (1) is obtained from the results of design strength ranging from M25 to M40 for 7 and 28 days of age coarse aggregate using ACI method.

4.3 Results of compressive strength tests using DoE method for crushed and uncrushed coarse aggregate at 7 and 28 days of age

Figures 5 and 6.

Fig. 5
figure 5

Comparison between average concrete compressive strength using crushed and uncrushed coarse aggregate for M25, M30 and M40 (28 days of age), using ACI method

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Fig. 6
figure 6

Comparison of compressive strength using crushed and uncrushed coarse aggregate by adopting DOE method for ages of 7 and 28 days

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4.4 Comparison between the results obtained by ACI and DoE

From Fig. 7, the following formula can be generated. This formula expresses the relation between compressive strength obtained by using ACI and DoE methods.

$${\text{y }} = \, - \, 0.00{\text{48x}}^{{3}} + \, 0.{\text{4521x}}^{{2}} - { 13}.{2}0{\text{9x }} + { 147}.{4}$$
(2)
Fig. 7
figure 7

Comparison between compressive strength using crushed and uncrushed coarse aggregate by adopting DOE method for ages of 28 days

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The coefficient of determination (R2) for this formula is:

R2 = 0.9767.Where: y is compressive strength by using DoE. x is compressive strength by using ACI.

Formula (2) is generated from the results of design strength ranging from M25 to M40 for 7 days of age.

Referring to Fig. 8, formula (3) can be obtained:

$${\text{y }} = \, - 0.00{\text{57x}}^{{3}} + \, 0.{\text{6662x}}^{{2}} - { 24}.{\text{667x }} + { 325}.{66}$$
(3)
Fig. 8
figure 8

Comparison between compressive strength using crushed coarse aggregate by adopting ACI and DOE method for ages of 7 days

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R2 = 0.9627.Where: y is compressive strength by using DoE. x is compressive strength by using ACI.

Formula (3) is generated from the results of design strength ranging from M25 to M40 for 28 days of age.

4.5 Concrete mixes batched by volume

The concrete mix batched by volume is the proportion of each constituent (cement: sand: aggregate). Of these ratios, three mixing ratios were adopted in this study, taken as a sample. These are 1:1:2, 1:1:3, 1:1:4. Water – cement ratio of 0.5 was used (w/c = 0.5).

e.g. 1:1:2 denotes 1 batch by volume of cement, 1 batch by volume of fine aggregate, 2 batch by volumes of coarse aggregate.

Table 5 demonstrates that the ordinary Portland cement utilized in this study complies with ACI specifications. This kind of cement may produce high-quality concrete mixes with a high compressive strength.

Table 5 Results of physical properties of cement paste
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The findings of this research demonstrate that the fine and coarse aggregate were properly graded, as seen in Figs. 2 and 3. The term “graded aggregate” describes the usage of aggregates with different sizes in concrete to ensure uniform consistency. Because the spaces will be filled up by particles of varying sizes, the concrete will be stronger.

Figures 8 and 9 show a significant positive association between the 7-day and 28-day compressive strengths of concrete produced with crushed coarse aggregate using ACI and DoE methods. There is a substantial correlation between ACI and DoE, as shown by the significant values of R2 = 0.9767 and 0.9627 for Eqs. 2 and 3, respectively. T.C. Nwofor et al. [6] had also demonstrated experimentally a strong correlation between crushed and uncrushed coarse aggregate in a related research investigation.

Fig. 9
figure 9

Comparison between compressive strength using crushed coarse aggregate by adopting ACI and DOE method for age of 28 days

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Figure 4 shows that, naturally, the compressive strengths at 28 days have larger values than those obtained at 7 days of age. For M25, M30, and M40, the variation in average strength due to design mix strength can reach up to 33% and 29%, respectively. This relationship agrees well with those obtained by Ejiogu, I. K et. al. [4]. In general, there is a 21% average difference in concrete strength between the two ages; that is, 75% of the concrete’s compressive strength after 28 days is represented by its strength after 7 days.

According to Fig. 10, ACI produced compressive strength values that were higher than DoE for M30 and M40, with the exception of M25, which produced lower values than DoE. This justifies the possibility that using the ACI method to design the concrete mix for high design strength values (M30 and above) could result in a higher compressive strength. Additionally, M25 has a significantly higher water-to-cement ratio, which led to a decrease in compressive strength. Anand B. Zanwar et. al. [11] had also revealed that the ACI approach gives higher strength when compared to the DOE method. Figures 11 and 12 demonstrate that, for all proportions of concrete mixtures measured by volume, crushed coarse aggregate produced a higher compressive strength than uncrushed coarse aggregate. These results are in good agreement with the findings of this investigation that used the DoE and ACI methods (see Fig. 13).

Fig. 10
figure 10

Comparison between compressive strength using crushed coarse aggregate at M25, M30 and M40 using ACI and DoE methods for ages of 7 and 28 days

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Fig. 11
figure 11

Relationship between cubes compressive strength for crushed and uncrushed coarse aggregate for age of 7 days (by volume mixing)

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Fig. 12
figure 12

Relationship between cubes compressive strength for crushed and uncrushed coarse aggregate for age of 28 days (by volume mixing)

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Fig. 13
figure 13

Relationship between cubes compressive strength for crushed and uncrushed coarse aggregate for ages of 7 and 28 days (by volume mixing)

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5 Summary and conclusion

This study investigates the influence of aggregate on the compressive strength—a measure of the hardened concrete’s qualities. In this study, the American Concrete Institute (ACI) and the British Department of Environment (DoE) employed two concrete design methods. A wide range of previous studies in this area was examined. Lab tests were performed to evaluate the outcomes provided by the two design approaches. The following findings were accordingly obtained:

  • The crushed and uncrushed coarse aggregate crushing is taken into account in the DOE method, but the ACI method does not take the uncrushed coarse aggregate into account.

  • The compressive strength values of crushed aggregate concrete are higher than those of uncrushed aggregate concrete produced by the DoE Method.

  • It is found that, according to the ACI method, the compressive strength at 7 days of age is approximately 75% of the compressive strength at 28 days.

  • The difference in strength at 7 and 28 days of age reaches up to 27% and 23% for crushed and uncrushed coarse aggregate, respectively, when using the DoE method.

  • Except for M25, which produced values that were lower than those obtained by the DoE for crushed coarse aggregates, the research demonstrates that the compressive strength values obtained by the ACI approach were higher than those obtained by the DoE for M30 and M40.

  • When concrete mixes were batched by volume, it was found that the crushed coarse aggregate produced higher values of compressive strength than the uncrushed coarse aggregate. At 7 and 28 days of age, the difference in strength is roughly between 7 and 10% and 5% and 9%, respectively.