Abstract
Groundwater has been gaining increasing interest as an imperative and crucial water resource. Its demand has been rising swiftly in the closing numerous many years with the overpopulation of and increasing standards of dwelling in the town of Makkah. In recent years, significant activity has arisen related to the natural radioactivity in water. Radon (222Rn) concentrations were measured in ten groundwater samples from distinct locations in the Makkah area, Saudi Arabia, using RAD7 which an electronic 222Rn gas detector linked to a RAD7- H2O accessories (Durridge -USA). The evaluated concentrations of 222Rn in the ground water samples of our study ranged from 0.426 to 18.628 Bq/l with a mean 2.851 Bq/l, whilst the dose of 222Rn due to drinking water in the stomach diverse from 0.089 to 3.912 µSv/y (average: 0.599) and the dose of 222Rn in the lungs different from 1.073 to 46.944 µSv/y (average: 7.184). The total annual effective dose (µSv/y) ranged from 1.163 to 50.855 µSv/y with a mean of 7.783 µSv/y. The effects of the existing learn about point out that the 222Rn concentrations in most groundwater samples taken around Makkah have been under the action levels recommended via USEPA, UNSCEAR, the EU Council, and the WHO.
Similar content being viewed by others
Avoid common mistakes on your manuscript.
1 Introduction
In current years, natural radioactivity has acquired a great deal of interest and has been investigated due to public subject springing up from radiation-related risks and the possibility of injury to human health [1]. Elevated tiers of these natural radioactive elements in the surroundings can pose a danger to our health. One of the naturally happening radioactive gases is Radon (222Rn). 222Rn is a tasteless, colorless, and odorless gas. 222Rn was discovered with the aid of Friedrich Dorn in 1900 whilst elucidating radium’s decay series [2]. 222Rn considered the second-highest cause of lung cancers after smoking and may also pose a widespread longterm hazard to human health. Radon-222 (222Rn), or acquainted “radon”, is part of the 238U decay collection (Fig. 1). We are typically able to measure 222Rn air (in indoor or outdoor), water, and soil. 222Rn is an inert gas, therefore, it can get away from any chemical compound and diffuse into the air. Alpha particles from 222Rn emission are adsorbed to air dust and other suspended particles. The primary reason of 222Rn gas in the Earth’s environment is the radioactive nature of the Earth, which enters radioactive materials in all organisms, which includes the human body, through inhalation or ingestion. Moreover, some of the plant incorporates the remnants of average radioactive factors which transfer interior our bodies such as carbon-14 and potassium-40 [3, 4]. To center of attention on these inert gases, the radium 226 decay series, shown below, are these parts of the 238U decay series that consist of these 222Rn gas and their short-lived progeny [5].
Radon is without difficulty soluble in water underneath pressure. Hence, groundwater passing through uranium-rich soils has a excessive attention of 222Rn. 222Rn concentrations in groundwater sources are two to three times greater than different radioactive substances. Therefore, high concentrations of 222Rn (11 Bq/l) may also be of challenge involving its outcomes on human health. By inhalation or ingestion of consuming water containing 222Rn, this gas and its decay products (218Po [T1/2 = three minutes], 214Pb [T1/2 = 27 min], 214Po [T1/2 = 164 microseconds], and 214Bi [T1/2 = 20 min], are viewed the second-highest motive of lung cancer [6], as it enters the lungs and begins to decay, with the resultant alpha particles have the conceivable to harm DNA and its products protein, causing injury to the lung epithelium cells and in the end resulting in most cancers. 222Rn may additionally make bigger the hazard to stomach inducing cancers for some populations using groundwater as their essential sources of ingesting water [7]. In 1988, International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC), and the cancer research institute of WHO, declared 222Rn to be carcinogenic to humans and classified it as a verified human carcinogen [8]. In Saudi Arabia, lung cancers are on the rise claiming an increasing number of lives [9]. Many international locations have currently attempted to measure 222Rn and radionuclide concentrations in water samples via several techniques [10,11,12,13,14]. The risk is increased significantly when floor water is used as the foremost water furnish for buildings that have closed structures and pump water directly to consumers, such that there is inadequate time for 222Rn to break out or decay [15]. The highest world recorded groundwater 222Rn concentration is 77,500 Bq/l in the Scandinavian region [16], where the world average is 183 Bq/l [17]. Groundwater 222Rn concentrations in Saudi Arabia, as derived generally from different locations, have been 0.01 to 67.4 Bq/l [18].
2 Materials and methods
2.1 The study area
This study was carried out in the city of Makkah, located in the western region of Saudi Arabia, and is the one of the most vital cities with an area of 1200 km2. Makkah is located at a latitude of 21° 25′ 21.0360′′ N & a longitude of 39° 49′ 34.2048′′ E. Makkah is recognized as a holy region for all Muslims. It is one of the principal and greatest cities of the province of Hejazi. It is the location of the annual pilgrimage of the tens of millions of Muslims who, in accordance to the Qur'an, have to visit the Kaaba, the most sacred Mosque and vicinity at least once in their lives. Artesian wells are natural points of interest of province and are positioned in extraordinary sectors of Makkah. This study was carried out on ten artesian wells around Makkah, with the concentrations of 222Rn measured in each of them. Artesian wells have been chosen in accordance to its geographic distribution round Makkah metropolis accessibility to them. Figure 2 indicates the areas of the ten selected artesian wells.
2.2 Sampling
This study was performed between the 23 and 30 July 2022. In every sampling location, the neighborhood of artesian wells, water samples were accrued in plastic bottles with 250 ml capacities, then closed tightly to avoid any losses of 222Rn gas and labelled in accordance with their sampling time and location. All these samples were taken from the corresponding areas after turning them on and permitting runoff for about ten min. This used to purge any trapped air and to permit the water temperature to stabilize. Also, the stream of the flow was once decreased to about one-eighth of an inch in diameter, bringing the air bubbling to be minimized.
2.3 Measurement technique
The study was carried out using a RAD7 222Rn detector, as shown in Fig. 3a. RAD7 is used in conjunction with semiconductor detector running at excessive voltage to discover the positively charged 222Rn daughters, (218Po (T1/2 = 3.10 min) and 214Po (T1/2 = 164 s)), which are then used to calculate the 222Rn activity in the air. RAD7 can distinguish between 218Po or 214Po relying on emitted alpha energy (218Po emit the alpha energy at 6 MeV and 214Po at 7.7 MeV). Since RAD7 can distinguish between old and new 222Rn gas (new 222Rn incorporate giant quantity of 218Po but the ancient include giant amount of 214Po). The RAD7 can detect 222Rn concentration in the vary of 0.1 pCi/L—20,000 pCi/L with the relative uncertainty of ± 0.5 cpm [19].
RAD H2O is a RAD7 add-on that reliably detects 222Rn in water with diversity of concentrations and can provide a reading for the 222Rn content of water within half an hour (measurement duration) of taking the sample. Figure 3b shows how to measure a water sample the usage of RAD7 and its RAD H2O add-on [20]. The RAD H2O employs the RAD7’s normal, preset protocols to give a unique size of the 222Rn content material of the water sample. The formal 222Rn content in a water sample can be calculated by using doubling of the 222Rn concentration in the air loop due to a steady conversion coefficient. The quantity of the air circulation, the quantity of the sample, and the equilibrium 222Rn distribution coefficient at room temperature are used to calculate a conversion coefficient of four for a 250 ml groundwater sample vial. A closed loop aeration device is used in this system. A mechanism whereby the air and water volumes are maintained at the identical level and are unchanged with the aid of the charge of flow. The Wet-250 protocol water test takes about thirty minutes to complete. At the begin of a test, the RAD7’s built-in pump routinely starts off evolved working for 5 min, aerating the pattern and transporting the degassed 222Rn to the RAD7 detecting chamber. Throughout the 5 min airing out cycle, greater than 94 percentage of the 222Rn existing is eliminated from the water. The pump shuts down routinely after 5 min, after which the computer pauses for a further 5 min. Following that, the computing device starts counting. Every 5 min, the laptop generates a short file for a 5 min cycle. Five minutes later, the equal issue occurs, and again twice again for 5 min. Following every measurement, the machine needs to be purged for 30 min to minimize humidity ranges to less than six percent. RAD7 generates a rundown that carries the average 222Rn attention in each of the 4 of 5-min intervals, a bar map of the four counting, and a cumulative spectrum. In addition, these measurements additional environmental parameters such as relative humidity and temperature add above the 222Rn concentrations table.
2.4 Determination of annual effective dose of 222Rn gas
The collection, sealing, of samples till to counting took a some of days. This led to the reduction of the 222Rn content in the samples due to radioactive decay. To account for this radioactivity reduction, the measured concentrations have been corrected the usage of the decay correction factor (DCF), from the time of sample collection to the time of counting. DCF, a simple exponential characteristic of a time constant, is given with the aid of:
where t = decay time in hours [19].
222Rn concentrations were corrected (Corr. RC) for decay time between sample collection and measurement, and the measured volume of 250 ml transformed to a liter via multiplying the DCF through a factor of four using Eq. (1).
To evaluate the 222Rn outcomes and risks, we want to calculate the whole annual effective dose (AED).
1-Annual effective dose due to the ingestion of 222Rn from under groundwater, (Eing) was calculated using Eq. (2).
where CRn is the mean 222Rn activity concentration in water, Dw is the daily water ingestion (2 l/ day), Ding is the ingesting dose conversion component of 222Rn (10− 8 Sv Bq− 1), T is equal to 365 day/year, and F is the indoor equilibrium factor between 222Rn and its progeny (0.4) [21].
2-The annual dose from inhalation, Einh, of 222Rn from water is received from Eq. (3), [21].
where CRn is the mean 222Rn activity concentration in water, R is the ratio of 222Rn in air to 222Rn in water (10−4), D is the dose conversion factor of 222Rn (9 nSv (hBqm3)−1, T is indoor time (7000 hy−1), and F is the indoor equilibrium factor between 222Rn and its progeny (0.4), [22, 23].
3 Results and discussion
Groundwater 222Rn measurements have been carried out in 10 exceptional places in Makkah as pronounced in Table 1, the place the mean, the minimum and maximum cost of 222Rn concentration were said as 2.851 Bq/l, 0.426 Bq/l, 18.628 Bq/l, respectively. The absolute best values had been in sample eight (18.628 Bq/l), which is located in Higher Nabe. The variability in the radon content ought to be attributed to the geological structure of the investigated region. Figure 4 indicates the histogram of groundwater 222Rn concentrations. As can be seen, all the measured values are beneath a hundred Bq/l endorsed by WHO. The annual tremendous dose of 222Rn in water from ingestion by using the stomach (Eing) and inhalation through the lungs (Einh) have been calculated the use of equations two and 3, are also in Table 1. The annual wonderful dose of ingestion used to be calculated. The highest Annual Effective Dose (AED) for the stomach was in sample eight (3.912 µSv/y), while the lowest at Umm algadb (0.089 µSv/y) had a suggest cost of 0.599 µSv/y. It may be noted that the highest possible Einh (annual dose from inhalation) used to be located in pattern 8, of 46.944 µSv/y, whilst the lowest value used to be found in pattern 1, which used to be equal to 1.073 µSv/y, and had a mean value of 7.184 µSv/y. It may additionally also be cited that the very best AED for the lungs used to be higher than the belly due to the gaseous nature of 222Rn. The minimum, maximum, and mean for complete annual nice doses in samples are 1.163 µSv/y, 50.855 µSv/y, and 7.783 µSv/y, respectively. As we observed that none of these samples had an annual tremendous dose greater than the most permissible limit of 0.2 mSv/y [23].
4 Conclusion
Today, a massive number of national and international agencies have established their own safe 222Rn ranges worldwide. For instance, the United States Environmental Protection Agency in its record of 1998 set the 222Rn concentration level in water at 11.1 Bq/l [24]. UNSCEAR has defined a value of 40 Bq/l in its posted report of 2016 [21], whilst the World Health Organization has described the 100 Bq/l as an action limit in 2012 [25]. In the current study, the results obtained from the more than a few samples had been observed not to exceed the endorsed levels of 222Rn in groundwater in accordance to USEPA 1999 [26]. In this regard, the spatial variability in the 222Rn concentration ought to be attributed to the geological structure of the investigated region, depth of the water source, differences in climate, and geo-hydrological strategies that occur in the area. Around 95 percent of the samples have been far less, by means of comparison, than the 222Rn ranges reported in the literature [27,28,29,30]. Furthermore, the estimated 222Rn concentrations in the existing learn about had been comparable to those discovered in the huge majority of regions of Saudi Arabia [31,32,33,34].
Data availability
My manuscript has no associated data.
References
Mehnati P, Doostmohammadi V & Jomehzadeh A (2022) Determination of Rn- 222 concentration and annual effective dose of inhalation in the vicinity of artesian wells in Kerman province, southeastern Iran. Iran J Radiat Res (IJRR) 10(3–4):171–175. http://ijrr.com/article-1-4099-en.html
Modupe Akinnagbe D, Michael Orosun M et al (2018) Assessment of Radon Concentration of Ground Water in Ijero Ekiti. Manila J Sci 11:32–41 ((16) (PDF) Assessment of Radon Concentration of Ground Water in Ijero Ekiti (researchgate.net))
Khalaf SQ & Hussien DS (2021) Radon concentration measurement in water reservoirs for some areas of north Baghdad by RAD7. J Phys 2114:12062. https://www.mdpi.com/2673-4532/3/3/23/pdf?version=1662105258
Martins L, Pereira A, Oliveira A, Fernandes A, Sanches Fernandes LF, Pacheco FAL (2019) an assessment of groundwater contamination risk with radon based on clustering and structural models. Water 11(5):1107. https://doi.org/10.3390/W11051107
Incze R, Papp B, Burghele BD, Cosma C & Gyila S (2016) Follow-up measurements to estimate the exposure to patients in the mofettes from Covasna County (Romania). Roman J Phys 61(7–8):1320–1329. https://rjp.nipne.ro/2016_61_7-8/RomJPhys.61.p1320.pdf
Mostafa M, Jegede OA, Khalaf H (2022) Measurement of radon concentration in water within Ojo axis of Lagos State, Nigeria. Analytica 3:325–334. https://doi.org/10.3390/analytica3030023
Khursheed A (2000) Doses to systemic tissues from radon gas. Radiat Prot Dosimetry 88(2):171–181. https://doi.org/10.1088/0952-4746/22/4/304
International Agency for Research on Cancer (1988) Man-made mineral fibers. IARC Monogr Eval Carcinog Risks Hum 43:39–171. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15288532/
Saudi Ministry of Health (2019) Guidelines on lung cancer for health workers. https://www.moh.gov.sa/en/Ministry/About/Health%20Policies/015.pdf
Saidu A, Bala A (2018) Assessment of the specific activity of alpha-and beta-emitting radionuclides in groundwater, Anka, Nigeria. Iran J Med Phys 15(4): 285–294 (8). https://ijmp.mums.ac.ir/article_10612.html
El-Taher A, Al-Turki A (2016) Radon activity measurements in irrigation water from Qassim Province by RAD-7. J Environ Biol 37(6):1299 (9). https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29257655/
Pourimani R, Nemati Z (2016) Measurement of radionuclide concentration in some water resources in Markazi Province, Iran. Iran J Med Phys 13(1):49–57 (10). https://ijmp.mums.ac.ir/article_7145.html
Abojassim AA (2019) Natural radioactivity and radon concentrations in parenteral nutrition samples utilized in Iraqi Hospitals. Iran J Med Phys 16(1):1–7 (11). https://ijmp.mums.ac.ir/article_10551.html
Parhoudeh M, Khoshgard K, Zare MR, Ebrahiminia A (2019) Natural radioactivity level of 226Ra, 232Th, and 40K radionuclides in drinking water of residential areas in Kermanshah Province, Iran using Gamma Spectroscopy. Iran J Med Phys 16(1):98–102. https://www.sid.ir/FileServer/JE/105920190114
Otton JK, Gundersen LCS and Schumann R (1995) Geology of radon, U.S. Department of Interior., U.S. Geology survey. The geology of radon | U.S. Geological Survey (usgs.gov)
Salonen L (1994) 238U series radionuclides as a source of in-creased radioactivity in ground water originating from Finnish bedrock. In Proceedings of IAHS Helsinki Conference, Future Groundwater Resources at Risk, International Association of Hydrological Sciences Publications. No.222,71–84. ([PDF] radioactivity in groundwater originating from Finnish bedrock - Free Download PDF (silo.tips))
NCRP (National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements) (1984) Exposures from the uranium series with emphasis on radon and its daughters. NCRP report no.77. https://ncrponline.org/shop/reports/report-no-077-exposures-from-the-uranium-series-with-emphasis-on-radon-and-its-daughters-1984/
Althoyaib SS & El-Taher A (2015) Natural radioactivity measurements in groundwater from Al-Jawa, Saudi Arabia. J Radioanal Nuclear Chem 304(2),547–552. (Natural radioactivity measurements in groundwater from Al-Jawa, Saudi Arabia | Semantic Scholar)
Durridge Company Inc (2022) RAD7, Electronic Radon Detector User Manual. https://durridge.com/documentation/RAD7%20Manual.pdf
Durridge Company Inc (2020) RAD7, Electronic Radon Detector H2O User Manual. https://durridge.com/documentation/RAD%20H2O%20Manual.pdf
UNSCEAR United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation (2016) Sources and Effects of Ionizing Radiation, United Nations, New York. https://www.unscear.org/docs/publications/2016/UNSCEAR_2016_Annex-A.pdf
ICRP (International Commission on Radiological Protection Statement on Radon) (2009) ICRP, Ref. 00/902/09. https://www.icrp.org/page.asp?id=16
UNSCEAR United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation (2000) Sources and Effects of Ionizing Radiation, United Nations, New York. (UNSCEAR 2000 Report Vol. I)
World Health Organization (2008) Guidelines for drinking-water quality [electronic resource]: Incorporating 1st and 2nd addenda. Vol. 1. Recommendations (3rd ed.), World Health Organization, Geneva, ISBN 978 92 4 154761 1 (WEB version) http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/204411/1/9789241547611_eng.pdf
WHO/UNICEF World Health Organization Joint Water Supply (2014) Sanitation Monitoring Program. Progress on drinking water and sanitation. (9789241505390_eng.pdf;jsessionid=550CE9F68D268 E1560798D9C0FBA69E4 (who.int))
USEPA. United States Environmental Protection Agency Office of Water (1999) 40 CFR Parts 141, and 142: National Primary Drinking Water Regulations; radon-222: proposed rule. US Environmental Protection Agency. (Federal Register, Volume 64 Issue 211 (Tuesday, November 2, 1999) (govinfo.gov))
Eleftheriou G, Tsabaris C, Androulakaki EG, Patiris DL, Kokkoris M, Kalfas CA et al (2013) Radioactivity measurements in the aquatic environment using in-situ and laboratory gamma-ray spectrometry. Appl Radiat Isotopes 82:268–278 (22. (PDF) Radioactivity measurements in the aquatic environment using in-situ and laboratory gamma-ray spectrometry | Christos Tsabaris - Academia.edu)
Küsters M, Schraven W (2009) Determination and differentiation of 226Ra and 222Rn by gamma-ray spectrometry in drinking water. J Radioanal Nuclear Chem 280(3):475–480 (23. Determination and differentiation of 226Ra and 222Rn by gamma-ray spectrometry in drinking water | SpringerLink)
Mauring A, Gäfvert T (2013) Radon tightness of different sample sealing methods for gamma spectrometric measurements of 226Ra. Appl Radiat Isotopes 81:92–95 (24). https://ijmp.mums.ac.ir/article_12777_8054e4059868c88c705e51ff7c25c288.pdf
Wójcik M, Zuzel G (2013) 226Ra, 210Pb, 210Bi and 210Po deposition and removal from surfaces and liquids. J Radioanal Nuclear Chem 296(2):639–645 (25). https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4514467/
Aleissa KA, Alghamdi AS, Almasoud FI, Islam MS (2012) Measurement of radon levels in groundwater supplies of Riyadh with liquid scintillation counter and the associated radiation dose. Radiat Protect Dosimetry 154(1):95–103 (26). https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22887118/
Alabdula'aly AI (1996) Occurrence of radon in Riyadh groundwater supplies. Health Phys 70(1):103–108 (27). https://journals.lww.com/health-physics/Abstract/1996/01000/Occurrence_of_Radon_in_Riyadh_Groundwater_Supplies.15.aspx
Shabana ES, Abulfaraj WH, Kinsara AA, Rizaiza OS (2013) Natural radioactivity in the groundwater of Wadi Nu’man, Mecca Province, Saudi Arabia. Radiochimica Acta Int J Chem Aspects Nuclear Sci Technol 101(7):461–470 (28. Natural radioactivity in the groundwater of Wadi Nu'man, Mecca Province, Saudi Arabia | Semantic Scholar)
Alabdula’aly AI (2014) Occurrence of radon in groundwater of Saudi Arabia. J Environ Radioact 138:186–191 ((PDF) IJMP Volume 17 Issue 1 Pages 15-20 | laith A najam - Academia.edu)
Acknowledgements
Authors strongly acknowledge Physics Department, Faculty of Applied Sciences and Umm Al-Qura University in Makkah, Saudi Arabia, for the facilities and providing the RAD7 radon detector.
Funding
This research received no external funding.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
All authors contributed to the study conception, design, material preparation, data collection and analysis. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.
About this article
Cite this article
Hassan, R.A., Almatani, T.U. Assessment of radon levels in groundwater in the city of Makkah, KSA. J.Umm Al-Qura Univ. Appll. Sci. 8, 2–7 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s43994-022-00004-7
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s43994-022-00004-7