1 Introduction

Nanoparticles have revolutionized the realm of skin care products by providing a superior alternative to traditional methods. With properties of high biocompatibility, low cytotoxicity, and high stability, nanoparticles offer targeted delivery of active ingredients, controlled release, deep penetration, and lower toxicity. They enable a tailored approach to individual needs, resulting in improved efficacy and prolonged benefits. Moreover, their lightweight and non-intrusive nature provides a better cosmetic appeal compared to traditional methods. In this way, nanoparticles have ushered in a new era of skincare superiority over conventional methods. Traditional methods of dermatological care and protection have long relied on lotions, creams, ointments, solutions, foams, and sprays to shield the skin from environmental factors. While these methods have been go-to for decades, they come with notable disadvantages. For example, ointments possess a greasy texture that is less appealing cosmetically and is very difficult to wash off and spread [1]. Creams and lotions on the other hand have less hydration and occlusive properties compared to ointments that decrease their percutaneous absorption.[2]. In addition to creams and lotions, another widely used method for dermatological care are solutions that have minimal hydration effects and lack occlusive and emolient properties. Moreover, alcohol-based solutions may impart skin irritation or stinging sensations similar to sprays upon application [3]. Furthermore, foams may also be used in traditional dermatological care but show minimum hydration effects and no occlusive effects in addition to burning or stinging sensation to sensitive skin [4] Nanoparticles in dermatological care aim to mitigate some of the drawbacks associated with traditional dermatological care modalities. They depict targeted delivery of active ingredients, controlled release, protection of susceptible groups from degradation, sustained stability, deep penetration and lower toxicity (Table 1) [5]. For example, emulsions reduced at nanometer size range are less greasy and have a better texture with deep penetrative properties when unified into hair conditioners and emollients [6]. Polymeric nanospheres and nanocapsules show controlled release of active ingredients at the site of action and enhanced stability owing to their rigid matrix upon topical application [7]. One such example is Carbopol® Ultrez 10 National Formulary which contains hydrogel housing dexamethasone as an active ingredient enabling sustained release of drug in psoriasis.

Table 1 Some marketed conventional skincare products
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In recent years, interest has shifted towards the use of inorganic nanoparticles for treatment of skin diseases and cosmetic applications (Table 2). Due to their inorganic nature, they show remarkable stability and versatile properties of good biocompatibility, targeted delivery, broad availability and functionality to mention a few. One prominent example of inorganic nanoparticles are Titanium dioxide and Zinc Oxide nanoparticles used in sunscreen for protection against UVA and UVB. They are cosmetically preferred and transparent compared to their microsized undesirable opaque counterparts used conventionally and provide a broad range UV protection [8]. These diverse examples depict that nanoparticle in dermatological care has ushered in a new era of skincare superiority over conventional methods. The precision and efficiency of nanoparticle-mediated delivery ensure targeted treatment addressing specific skin concerns with unparalleled accuracy. Their ability to penetrate the skin at a molecular level allows for enhanced absorption of beneficial ingredients, resulting in improved efficacy. Moreover, nanoparticles offer a lightweight and non-intrusive alternative to the often cumbersome and greasy traditional formulations. The versatility of nanoparticles enables the incorporation of diverse skincare components, allowing for a tailored approach to individual needs. The sustained release capabilities of nanoparticles further contribute to prolonged benefits, setting them apart from the transient effects of many conventional skin care methods.

Table 2 Various cosmetics manufacturers employ nanoparticles in their products
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In essence, the use of nanoparticles in dermatological care represents a remarkable advancement, offering a more effective, comfortable, and personalized approach to skincare. As technology continues to evolve, the promise of nanoparticles in elevating the standards of skin health remains a beacon for the future of skincare practices.

2 Nanoparticle properties useful as skin care agents

2.1 UV filtration

Regular exposure to sunlight can lead to susceptibility to harmful UV rays, which can result in damage, sunburn, and even skin cancer. UV radiation spans from 200 to 300 nm and can be categorized into UVA, UVB, and UVC. UVA radiation accounts for 97% of the harm, with UVB contributing 5%; however, UVC radiation is absorbed by the ozone layer and poses less risk. While UVA radiation is generally less harmful, UVB radiation is more damaging due to its higher energy levels. To shield against these harmful rays, sunscreen was developed to provide protection. Sunscreens are typically either chemical or organic in origin. Organic compounds, such as lignin extracted from vascular plants, efficiently absorb UVB radiation due to its absorbance falling between UVB and UVC wavelengths. Inorganic substances work by absorbing UV radiation and converting it into heat or forming an active layer on the skin to act as UV filters, reflecting or scattering the UV radiation. Among inorganic nanoparticles, titanium and zinc nanoparticles are effective in preventing UV radiation. Formulations combining lignin and zinc nanoparticles have shown increased efficiency, resulting in higher SPF levels and providing enhanced protection.

2.2 Rheological modifiers

Rheological modifiers serve as thickeners, enhancing the apparent viscosity of formulations. This thickening aids in improving stability, allowing formulations to maintain their thickened state within containers while remaining easily applicable as topical formulations. Clay and silica nanoparticles are commonly employed as rheological modifiers. The inert nature of silica nanoparticles renders them particularly beneficial for cosmeceutical applications. The increased viscosity and thickness associated with nanoparticles result from the transient aggregation of nanoparticles under mechanical pressure, forming a percolating network. This process not only enhances rheological properties but also imparts an opaque finish to the nanoparticles, aiding in skin protection by absorbing harmful compounds [19].

2.3 Antibacterial and antifungal properties

The commonly used formulations and skincare products often carry several drawbacks, including toxicity and limited efficacy on the skin. Consequently, nanoparticles of silver and gold have gained traction due to their extensive antibacterial and antifungal properties. These nanoparticles are incorporated into formulations in the cosmetic industry and added as active ingredients in the final stages to address various skin issues such as acne, rashes, and fungal or bacterial infections. Among them, silver nanoparticles are particularly popular due to their affordability and broad-spectrum activity. These nanoparticles employ multiple mechanisms to combat skin ailments, penetrating cells through various receptors and inhibiting resistant strains, thus preventing membrane leakage and DNA damage. Their eco-friendly production process further enhances their appeal, allowing for the creation of biocompatible formulations that deliver high performance when used in creams or gels. As a result, silver nanoparticles find diverse applications in lotions, creams, and other skincare products [19].

2.4 Anti-ageing and moisturizing properties

Another noteworthy nanoparticle utilized for its beneficial properties is gold nanoparticles, which also hold historical significance, having been used in Cleopatra’s beauty regimen. Gold nanoparticles are prized for their anti-aging and moisturizing properties. While the precise mechanisms of their action are not fully elucidated, it is believed that they possess antioxidant properties that can mitigate UVA-induced reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation. Additionally, they may engage in competitive inhibition with carbohydrate moieties, aiding in the retention of skin elasticity. These unique attributes make gold nanoparticles valuable agents in anti-aging skincare products [19].

3 Different nanocarriers synthesis methods for topical skin use

As nanoparticles have advanced, their versatility has expanded into diverse domains, particularly proving remarkably effective in revolutionizing skincare within the cosmetics industry. In our pursuit of comprehensively understanding the extensive use of nanoparticles in skincare, we initiate an in-depth review. Here in, the dynamic nature, methodologies, types of nanoparticles and prospects of nanoparticles in skin protection. Subsequently, the biocompatibility, stability, and applications of nanoparticles in various skincare products, elucidating their diverse roles are mentioned. This comprehensive approach allowed us to explore the multifaceted realm of nanoparticles in skincare, contributing to a more nuanced understanding of their potential (Fig. 1).

Fig. 1
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Applications of nanoparticles in the cosmetic industry

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In the realm of dermatological applications, a diverse array of nanocarriers has emerged, offering innovative solutions for topical skin use. These carriers, which range from liposomes and micelles to solid lipid nanoparticles, improve the transport of active chemicals, resulting in focused and effective penetration. Their versatility allows for a wide range of medicinal and cosmetic compositions that address concerns including hydration, ageing, and inflammation. By encapsulating beneficial compounds, these nanocarriers contribute to the changing landscape of skincare, delivering precise and effective remedies for varied skin issues.

3.1 Organic nanocarriers

3.1.1 Liposome

Liposomes are minute vesicles that contain more than one phospholipid bilayer which usually enclose an aqueous core surrounded by a hydrophobic lipid bi-layer. Their size ranges in between 25 nm to numerous microns [20]. Liposomes are appropriate for the delivery of both hydrophobic as well as hydrophilic compounds. Soni et al. [21] in their work on liposomes discuss certain essential usefulness of liposomes in daily skin care products. Many of the water-resistant sun care products show improved effectiveness when liposome-encapsulated ultraviolet filters are included. A moisturizer containing aloe vera leaf gel extract encapsulated in liposomes, known for its anti-wrinkle properties, has demonstrated greater efficacy compared to applying the gel on its own. Additionally, the integration of liposomes containing CoQ10, a potent antioxidant, contributes to skincare benefits. Moreover, successfully encapsulating larger vitamins such as vitamin E, water-soluble vitamins, fat-soluble amino acids, and even chemically formulated active ingredients within liposomes enables the development of a variety of effective skincare products [21].

Liposome captures the drug and releases the active components in a controlled method. The main ingredient of liposome is Phosphatidylcholine which has been used to prepare many skin care products like moisturizer, creams and so on and also hair care products like shampoo and conditioner due to its smoothening and conditioning values [22]. Because of their biodegradable, less toxic, and biocompatible character, liposomes are used in a range of cosmeceutical products [37]. Various research are now being conducted on liposomes for the production of perfumes, botanicals, and vitamins from anhydrous preparations, such as antiperspirants, body mists, deodorants, and lipsticks. They also have an application in anti-aging creams, serums, sun protection creams, moisturizers, and lotions, and also help with the treatment of hair loss [23].

3.1.2 Dendrimer as a nanocarrier

Dendrimer is a polymeric nanostructure having size less than 100 nm that surrounds a core unit. They have many branching units surrounding the core units arranged in a layered manner which describes the growth, size, and the microenvironment inside the dendrimer [24]. Dendrimers are formed by a huge number of tiny units recognized as Dendrons. Dendrimers are currently being employed in a variety of cosmetics like in shampoos, sunscreen lotions, hair-styling gels, and anti-acne products [10]. Dendrimers intermingle with the bilayer of the skin, thereby assisting the drug skin accessibility and similar kind of nanoparticle is very helpful for delivery of cosmetic products. In addition, several patents had been filed related to the use of dendrimer in their cosmetic products (Table 3) [25, 26].

Table 3 Patented nanocarriers for skin protection are currently undergoing clinical trials
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3.1.3 Polymersome as a nanocarrier

Polymersomes are synthetic vesicles with an aqueous hollow center, containing self-assembled block copolymer amphiphiles. Their inner center is hydrophilic, and the outer layer is lipophilic, hence both lipophilic and hydrophilic drugs can be used, and the hydrophobic center offers a protein-affable atmosphere [27]. Liposomes having numerous sections, or vesosomes, have been created as means of transport competent of delivering several discrete drugs. Polymersomes are being used in the most dexterous way to shield and encapsulate various susceptible molecules such as RNA remains, DNA, certain enzymes, peptides, proteins, and drugs [28]. Polymersomes are a lot more steady than other nanoparticles like liposomes because of their inflexible and broad bi-layer [29]. Their stretchy membrane makes it competent for guarded and embattled release of drugs [30]. In the cosmetic industries, the uses of polymersomes are under thorough investigation and quite a lot of patents are filed for using it to improve cell activation energy of the skin and develop better elasticity of skin.

3.1.4 Solid lipid nanocarrier

Solid lipid carriers (SLCs) are firm at human physiological temperature which ranges about 50–100 nm in size [31]. Solid lipids found in the medium drug that is distributed in the solid center matrix. Phospholipids hydrophobic chains are entrenched in the fat matrix. They are arranged from compound glycerides mixtures, purified triglycerides, and waxes [28]. SLNs are popularly used in cosmetics and pharmaceuticals. The small size of the SLNs ensures that they are in contact closely with the stratum corneum that enhance the diffusion of the active elements into the skin [32]. SLNs are resistant to UV and perform as sunscreens on their own [33]. SLNs are used as an active ingredient in vitamin E-rich sunscreens and deodorants [34]. With the help of surfactants, the SLNs are stabilized. SLNs are renowned in the cosmetic industry because of the existence of their inherent properties such as nanoscale geometry, ability to penetrate the inner layers of the skin, least amount of toxicity, ability to act depending on the area, and better availability [35].

3.1.5 Hydrogels as nanocarriers

Hydrogel nanoparticles (nanocarriers) are nanostructures also known as macromolecular micelles or polymeric nanogels, that show great promise as drug carriers in therapeutic applications. While hydrogels are not intrinsically nanocarriers, they may enclose and release nanoparticles, making them excellent nanocarriers. This transformational property enables hydrogels to improve drug delivery accuracy, bioavailability, and therapeutic effectiveness [36].

Hydrogels are an arrangement made up of 3D hydrophilic polymers that turn swollen when they are in a proximity with water or various biological liquids. They do not mix or disband in water because of the presence of substantial cross-links. They are very conventional, and they can make changes in their properties so as to avoid them from damaging themselves. Hydrogels are polymeric arrangements made up of physical or chemical cross-links that have the capability to increase in size without disintegrating in water. It is because of this high capability and other extraordinary properties, that it is used as a skin-related transport system for cosmetic skin care products. Notably, nanocomposite hydrogels serve as effective nanocarriers, showcasing their application in treating conditions like melanoma skin cancer. A prime illustration is the nanocomposite hydrogel rGO-5FU-CMARX, featuring graphene oxide loaded with fluorouracil and carboxymethylarabinoxylan, exhibiting promising prospects in drug delivery systems for targeted therapy [37].

An added benefit of hydrogels that has recently come into light is that they might offer advantageous security of drugs, peptides, and certain proteins from the possibly callous environment in the surrounding area of the location of release. Hence, such carriers can be put to use in the upcoming time for the oral transport of proteins and peptides. Ultimately, hydrogels can make outstanding applicants as recognizable biomaterials. And, they may be used as potential transporters of bioactive agents, with advantageous biological properties [38].

3.2 Inorganic nanocarriers

3.2.1 Carbon nanotubes

The innovation of carbon nanotubes is reviewed to be one of the most exceptional inventions. They consist of carbon cylinders that are made of benzene rings which are used as a sensor for spotting of DNA and protein in biology, diagnostic procedure for distinguishing between diverse proteins, starting from transporters to carry protein or vaccine to serum samples [39]. CNTs have a length of just about 10 s of microns and they have a diameter of around 0.7–50 nm. CNTs have a tremendously light weight and they are of three categories like there are CNTs with multiple walls, CNTs with two walls, and finally CNTs with a single wall. Some of the properties of CNTs such as the organized structure, lightweight, large surface area, high mechanical strength and semi-metallic behavior make it an appropriate nanocarrier for drug transport [31]. Various government patents of carbon nanotubes are now being unconfined in the cosmetic industry for products like hair colors and in a large number of cosmetic products that contain carbon nanotubes as active ingredients (Table 3).

3.2.2 Gold and silver nanocarriers

Gold and silver nanocarriers are widely used in the field of nanobiotechnology, where they serve as biosensors and for visualization of cell arrangement and targeted delivery of drugs. Presently, colloidal nanoparticles are under study because of their exclusive physicochemical properties that are different from the bulk properties. Gold nanoparticles can range from any size between 5 to 400 nm. Research investigations have revealed that gold nanocarriers are not toxic for humans at a cellular level [32].

Gold nanoparticles are very stable, nontoxic, biocompatible and inert in nature. One of their properties is that they have a capability of high drug-loading and can effortlessly pass through into the targeted cell because of their large surface area and small shape. Nano Golds are being studied as an important substance in cosmetic industries because they act as strong antibacterial and antifungal agents. The nanoparticles are used in a range of cosmetic products like face cream, face pack or mask, body lotion, perfumes, anti-wrinkle lotions and other products. Huge cosmetic brands like L’Oreal Paris use these gold nanoparticles in their products [29]. They also act as antiseptics and make the skin tight. Gold and silver nanoparticles act as antimicrobial agents. Many companies in the cosmetic industry have reported that nanosilver used in cosmetic products will supply protection to the skin throughout the day.

3.3 Other nanocarriers used in skincare

3.3.1 Titanium nanocarriers in skincare

As a massive material, titanium dioxide (TiO2) is principally used as a coloring because of its luster and brightness, very high refractive index, and opposition to discoloration. Almost 70% of all TiO2 manufactured is used as a tincture in paints, furthermore, it is also used as a substance in plastics, enamels, glazes, papers, fibers, foods, medications, cosmetic products, dental hygiene products like toothpastes etc. [40]. Recently, there has been an increased focus on the utilization of TiO2 as a nanomaterial, particularly in the field of skincare. Badge et al. [41] conducted groundbreaking research demonstrating the potential use of titanium nanoparticles in a skin cancer preventive gel. Their study aimed to develop a nanogel addressing concerns related to hormonal disruptions from traditional sunscreens. By employing quercetin (Qu) and titanium dioxide (TiO2), they optimized two Qu nanocrystal formulations, showcasing specific particle sizes, zeta potentials, and drug contents. Notably, the nanogels, particularly Qu (0.12%) + TiO2 (15%), exhibited impressive drug release and significantly improved skin deposition. In a UVB-induced skin photocarcinogenesis model, the Qu (0.12%) + TiO2 (15%) nanogel showcased notable benefits, offering a promising chemopreventive strategy with enhanced skin deposition against UVB-induced skin cancer [41]. Apart from this, TiO2 in its nanoparticle form (nano-TiO2) is now the sole form utilised as an ultraviolet (UV) filter in sunscreens, as well as some day creams, foundations, and lip balms.

3.3.2 Zinc oxide nanocarriers in skincare

Amid the array of nanomaterials available, metal nanomaterials stand out as promising biomedical agents for delivering beneficial compounds to address various disorders. Among metal oxide nanoparticles, ZnO NPs exhibit remarkable UV-absorbing properties. ZnO's potent UV absorption properties have led to its growing inclusion in personal care products, including cosmetics and sunscreen formulations. Furthermore, their antimicrobial and anticancer attributes, linked to the stimulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, have been investigated. In addition to their inherent biomedical uses, ZnO NPs demonstrate remarkable capabilities as drug carrier systems, enhancing their versatility and potential in the field of nanomedicine.

The US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has acknowledged bulk ZnO commonly as a safe substance, and ZnO NPs well-built than 100 nm are measured to be comparatively bio-compatible, supporting their use for delivering drugs. Additionally, the intrinsic anticancer and antimicrobial performances of ZnO NPs provide them advanced to other regularly used drug carriers, like lipid and polymeric nanoparticles [42]. Besides these, ZnO is relatively inexpensive, biocompatible, and comparatively less toxic in comparison with other metal oxide NPs, which in advance supports its relevance potential.

4 The role of nanoparticles in cosmetic formulations and specialized applications

With the evolution of nanotechnology, nanoparticles have found its applications in various fields including the cosmeceutical industry. Different types of nanoparticles are used in cosmeceuticals namely nanoemulsion, gold nanoparticles, carbon nanotubes, dendrimers, cubosomes, liposomes, niosomes, nanospheres, dendrimers, solid-lipid nanocarriers and nanostructured lipid carriers among many others [28]. The primary goal of nanoparticles in the cosmeceutical industry is to assist in skin care and skin protection. Apart from imparting protection in UV filtration and having various antifungal and antibacterial properties, they are also used in the following fields:

4.1 Deodorants

Body odor arises when bacteria thrive on perspiration and multiply. The primary aim of any deodorant is to completely mask off body odor or to prevent its formation if possible. Silver nanoparticles have been well known for their antimicrobial properties and they have been used in deodorants to reduce bacterial growth on perspiration thereby masking off and preventing the formation of body odor [43].

4.2 Eye care products

Various types of nanoparticles have been used in the development of different eye care products. For example, a lightweight grease-free eye gel developed by Decorté uses a multilayered liposome technology in combination with polyglutamic acid. The skin around the eyes become resilient and the appearance of fine lines becomes less due to the heavy moisturization, and hydration offered by the formulation. Carbon black nanoparticles have been used as colorant for eye cosmeceuticals and mascaras at a concentration of 10% in the cosmeceutical industry [44].

5 Exploring the dual roles: retinoids, peptides, antioxidants, and hyaluronic acid as skincare agents and nanocarriers for radiant skin

In the quest for glowing skin, the world today often delve into the multifaceted world of skincare, where major actors like retinoids, peptides, antioxidants, and hyaluronic acid play several roles (Fig. 2). Beyond their direct impact as excellent skincare treatments, these chemicals demonstrate an extra dimension as nanocarriers, which improve transport and efficacy. In Fig. 2 provided below we find some nanocarriers which play an essential role in the skincare treatments.

Fig. 2
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Diverse nanocarriers transforming cosmetic delivery systems

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Retinoids slow ageing, peptides boost collagen, antioxidants protect against damage, and hyaluronic acid moisturizes. They negotiate skin barriers as nanocarriers, ensuring targeted distribution for best effects. This investigation reveals a link between skincare and nanotechnology, leveraging the power of science to boost our goal of a beautiful, healthy complexion.

5.1 Retinoids

Retinoids, derived from Vitamin A and its derivatives, stand as compounds renowned for their anti-aging properties. Utilized as nanocarriers in skin treatments since 1940, they play a crucial role in addressing rapid aging and treating acne. Typically applied topically, they can also be administered orally [45]. To comprehend the process of skin repair, it is imperative to examine how these compounds, both alleviate and confront skin damage in individuals.

5.1.1 Treatment of skin by retinoids

It has been seen that retinoids have an effective action in the case of skin treatment at a molecular level. Retinoid molecules can easily transmit through the cellular membrane receptor by endocytosis. The action of retinoids is mediated by the help of its receptors. The action of retinoids occurs through the help of its receptors i.e. retinoic acid receptors and retinoid X receptors. Synthetic retinoids help in the skin treatment by the active binding to these receptors. Retinoids show possible dermal effects by the inhibition or by the activation of different enzymes that help in retinoid metabolism. Hence any modification in retinoid acid metabolism can help it to work as a therapeutic process and help it in skincare treatment (Fig. 3) [45]. The most important retinoid that is used for treatment is tretinoin. These retinoids have a distinct binding domain which are seen to function in pairs by forming heterodimers. Hence by the binding of these retinoid molecules to the retinoid X receptor heterodimer they help in facilitating the skin treatment process via cellular differentiation [46].

Fig. 3
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Chemical structure of Vitamin A

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5.2 Antioxidants

Antioxidants are considered a great source of preparation of nanoparticles and are very efficient in drug delivery. Mainly chitosan nanoparticles are employed for the purpose of drug delivery. The antioxidant property of these nanoparticles comes from the reaction that occurs between the hydroxyl radicals and superoxide anion with the amino and hydroxyl groups present in chitosan molecules. This property of antioxidants makes them a highly efficient delivery system in skin cancer. These nanoparticles are prepared by ionic-gelation method and contain the payload of anticancer DOX making them a safer and non-toxic anticancer drug. To use these nanoparticles as a chemo-synthetic drug they are mixed with doxorubicin forming nanocomposites which can be easily delivered within the body. Apart from delivery, being an antioxidant, it helps to boost the effect of DOX. Thus, making them a safer and more efficient delivery system in skin cancer and other skin treatments [47].

5.3 Ceramide and hyaluronic acid

A combination of ceramide and hyaluronic acid is used to make a typical hybrid nanoparticle. These nanoparticles are highly efficient and are used in intravenous docetaxel delivery. Upon investigation, it was found out that to function as an anti-cancer delivery system the hydrophilic shell of these nanoparticles needs to be extended. This extension helps it to have better circulation in its bloodstream, making it able to achieve a proper targeting. This targeting occurs by the accumulation at tumor site by making a fenestrated vasculature and the absence of an effective lymphatic system makes it a better targeting site and hence these nanoparticles make an efficient drug delivery system for cancer drugs. When these nanoparticles encounter the tumor cell having receptors matching with targeting moiety, they recognize the receptor and hence the drug is released at target site. This is how these hybrid nanoparticles help to treat skin cancer [48].

5.4 Peptides

Among peptides, Fmoc-FF peptides stand out as widely employed nanoparticle agents. These peptides form a unique nano-structured hydrogel, leveraging a beta-sheet motif under specific physiological conditions. The self-assembling mechanism of Fmoc-FF peptides results in the formation of dipeptides. Notably, recent advancements have harnessed peptide nanogels for drug delivery in the realms of nanomedicines and diagnostic imaging. The synthesis of nanogels involves the amalgamation of nanoparticle aggregates with hydrogels in a carefully formulated manner. This underscores the potential of Fmoc-FF hydrogel as a versatile scaffold for effective drug delivery within the human body [49].

6 Harmful effects of nanoparticles

6.1 Toxicity

In recent years there has been a rapid development in the field of nanotechnology as it has proved to be a boon in the field of cosmetics, food, and agricultural industry. They have also brought a great impact in the field of medicine and other industries due to its electrical and physicochemical properties. They are now widely used in making instruments for drug delivery including systems for monoclonal antibodies [50]. Due to its wide usage, humans have been directly exposed to nanoparticles since birth and thus this new field of development is posing a threat to the existence of human beings [51]. Although there are few proven facts which show that along with being harmful to human beings, they are also highly toxic to algae, bacteria, invertebrates and fishes. Scientific experiments show that these harmful effects can even cause harm to their embryonic development and even curb reproduction [52].

Recently, there have been exponential growths in the use of inorganic nanoparticles like Ag-NPs, ZnO nanoparticles which when are disposed in the environment, pose a lethal threat to the human race as they accumulate in the various systems, and they can be triggered by immune system and get eliminated. During their presence in the body, they interfere with the physiological mechanisms of the embryo and may cause lethal diseases and malformations in the baby and can also disturb the physiological conditions of the mother. Due to their smaller size, they easily penetrate the blood -skin barrier and provoke cell metabolism by interfering with signal transduction eventually leading to cell death. Hence, a new discipline of nanotechnology called nanotoxicology has been advised that discusses the potential threat of nanoparticles on the environment and organisms by the investigation of several pathways and finding out the extent of nanotoxicity in them [51]. Hence nanotoxicity reports tell us how it can get introduced in the body and affect our different systems.

6.1.1 Inhalation

Inhalation represents a critical pathway for nanoparticle exposure, alongside ingestion and dermal routes, and stands out as the most concerning due to its pronounced impact on the human body. Airborne nanoparticles, once inhaled, traverse the human respiratory tract through Brownian diffusion, eventually depositing in the alveolar regions. Subsequently, these deposited particles breach biological membranes, reaching distinct organs and disseminating their toxic materials beyond the pulmonary sites. Particle retention in the lungs is size-dependent, with larger particles depositing in the nasopharyngeal region and being efficiently removed via mucociliary processes. In contrast, smaller nanoparticles penetrate deeply into the alveoli, necessitating a longer removal time. Once deposited, these nanoparticles instigate particle-cell interactions, impairing macrophage function and hindering their ability to phagocytose and eliminate other harmful particles [53]. They subsequently cross the blood-air barrier, thereby entering the bloodstream and radially destroying other organs. Inorganic particles of TiO2 can translocate the interstitial portion of the lung and can lead to pulmonary inflammation It was also seen to increase the amount of reactive oxygen species in the body causing induced DNA [54].

6.1.2 Ingestion

Besides these, Ingestion is considered another most effective route for the entry of nanoparticles and can lead to its toxicity. Entry can occur through food directly or indirectly in the form of inhaled nanoparticles or in the form of nanoparticle disintegration from food containers. The nanoparticles found in foods may be of organic origin such as carbohydrate, lipid or protein and can be of inorganic origin such as silicon dioxide, titanium dioxide, iron oxide etc. [53].

The nanoparticles pass through the mouth followed by the GI tract; it moves to the small intestine by encountering the action of several enzymes of the digestive system. In the small intestine, they are exposed to different salivary fluids, digestive enzymes, bile salts etc. If the nanoparticles do not get absorbed in the small intestine, they reach the colon, containing undigested food and presence of nanoparticles in the last intestine interferes with the gastrointestinal fluids disrupting their functioning [55]. This alteration in functioning disrupts the catalytic nature of enzymes as they denature the globular proteins. Some inorganic undigested nanoparticles may also release some ions that may cause unwanted biochemical reactions. On its due course of stay, its size starts getting smaller and as a result they have a higher chemical and biological activity increasing their toxicity [53]. This toxicity can lead to acute or chronic toxicity. The high level of organic and inorganic nanoparticles may also disrupt the level of digestion of starch, protein, or lipid in the gastrointestinal tract.

6.1.3 Dermal route

The skin is one of the largest sense organs surrounding the whole body and serves as the main route of primary exposure to the environment. Apart from inhalation, injection and implantation by drug delivery systems, they can be directly transmitted to the human body by the skin [52].

It was found out that nanoparticles having a size of less than 10 nm are easily translocated in the human body through the cutaneous layer in comparison to the nanoparticles having a size of 30 nm making the earlier one more harmful. Nanoparticles such as quantum dots having a size of 30 nm are poorly penetrated in the body. When these nanoparticles get transmitted in the body on the prolonged course of stay, they can catalyse eschar formation and cause oedema and prolonged erythema [53]. The nanoparticles having a size of less than 10 nm or equal to 10 nm, exhibiting smaller size are more easily and are fully transmitted to the body parts. These may cause papillomatosis, hyperkeratosis, epidermis, cystic fibrosis and may even lead to the hyalinization of collagen in the cutaneous layer. This reduces Ca2+ release from the calcium reserves in the endoplasmic reticulum and mitochondria by the development of ROS formation which subsequently results in organelle membrane damage. This series of damage disrupts the signaling pathways and causes cell arrest, mutagenesis and finally impacts the integrity of mitochondrial DNA.

6.1.4 Cytotoxicity

The cytotoxicity of nanoparticles is intricately linked to their dispersion within a medium. Recent scientific investigations have revealed that organic nanomaterials exhibit lower cellular viability, whereas inorganic counterparts such as silicon dioxide and titanium dioxide demonstrate elevated cell viability indices. Upon introduction into the body, nanoparticles tend to localize within the cytoplasmic region of immune cells, rendering the body susceptible to various diseases. Zinc nanoparticles exhibit heightened toxicity, leading to immune damage and an increase in their intercellular solubility. This augmented solubility of ZnO nanoparticles poses potential toxicity to hepatocyte cells, inducing mitochondrial injury, double-stranded DNA degradation, and triggering apoptosis [56].

6.2 Environmental risk

Since the twentieth century, significant advancements have occurred in the field of nanoparticles, presenting crucial applications in both industrial sectors and daily life. In 2004, global indices estimated the production of approximately 1000 tons of nanoparticles, contributing to heightened environmental toxicity. While comprehensive data on the adverse levels of environmental pollution and nanoparticle toxicity remains limited, recent research underscores their severe impact on the environment. The inherent small size of nanoparticles, enhancing stability, leads to prolonged environmental and bodily retention. Consequently, this engenders potential nanoparticle exposure in the human environment, inducing pollution and manifesting toxic effects. The escalating presence of nanoparticles amplifies adverse effects on public health. Ongoing international efforts are formulating laws to ensure the safe disposal of nanoparticles, aiming to mitigate environmental pollution and pre-empt nanotoxicity [56].

6.2.1 Risk from nanomaterial residues.

It is a well-known fact that innovation by nanotechnology has become a scope of hope in today’s world. With increasing modernization there has been a crazy development and innovation using nano-goods and nanomaterials in all phases of life. helping to thrive people towards modernization. But the use of nanomaterials has yielded tons and tons of waste products called nano waste which has not been disposed of properly leading to the nano-residue toxicity [57]. Apart from inorganic materials nano wastes are also derived from natural biomaterials and from wood burning and eruption from the volcanoes. Due to their vigorous use, there is a rapid spreading of nano waste. These wastes need immediate steps to be treated or otherwise they may pollute the basic air and water and may lead to serious deformity in upcoming generations. These nanoparticles, due to their size are highly stable and can be efficiently used in composting and making their use as landfill. Basically, the recycling of nanoparticles requires segregation of nanoparticles i.e. dismantling their different components and reusing them by physical or chemical transformation. Carbon- based nanoparticles can be used by means of combustion. It is a well-known fact that some species of fungi and plants can efficiently hyperaccumulate heavy metals. This can easily help to remediate polluted soils, water and air as these plants and fungi bioaccumulate these heavy metals [57].

7 Advancements in skin care treatment

7.1 Recent developments

Over the years, there has been a huge deal about the significance in the applications of microemulsions, vesicles such as liposomes and many emulsions in cosmetic products. These arrangements will present the cosmeceutical industry with a new variety of formulations that are easily available, has an easier application method, functions better than the conventional products and is conclusively safer. Microemulsions are thermodynamically steady systems and therefore its shelf life is not a problem. Various cosmetic components may sufficiently be dissolved and taken up by the swollen micelles of the microemulsions. Solubilized systems like these can improve delivery and diffusion through a variety of barriers, for example the skin, hence increasing the efficiency of the formulations [58]. In recent years, the conventional form of cosmetics has lengthened by adapting to alteration and is now acknowledged founded on scientific and technology-based research. Many in vivo and in vitro research confirmed the suitability of cosmetic formulations and the cosmeceutical industry showed novel alternatives to this inclination with abundant brand-new skincare products. These delivery systems may be described as elements with a dimension of about 1–1000 nm and may be organized from primarily any kind of bio- compatible material. A large range of nanoparticles ranging from metal nanocarriers to lipid nanostructures, nanocrystalline and polymeric nanomaterials have been observed as active ingredient transport systems in various in vivo replicas with exceptional outcomes that guarantee an enormous commercialization in coming years. Their small size, capability to functionalize and appropriate loading potential adds fresh pharmacological belongings to nanoparticles. Delivery of pharmaceutical means to skin using nanomaterials could transform the treatment of many skin problems [59].

7.2 Running brands

Several comprehensive surveys confirm the widespread integration of nanoparticles and nanotechnology across major beauty brands, skincare companies, and cosmetic industries. Notably, Estee Lauder, a prominent cosmetic manufacturer since 2006, has consistently incorporated nanomaterials across a diverse product range. Another exemplar is L’Oreal, recognized as the world's largest cosmetic company, holding patents for several nanosome nanoparticles. Avon, a globally renowned brand, also utilizes nanoparticles in its beauty products. Additional industry leaders, such as Procter and Gamble, Henkel, Unilever, Kao Corp, Shiseido, Beiersdorf, and Johnson & Johnson, actively employ nanoparticles. An assessment of the top 10 cosmetic brands' nano-related patents, extracted from the Espacenet database, is presented in the accompanying graph (Fig. 4).

Fig. 4
figure 4

Graphical representation of various companies and their number of nano-related patents

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7.3 Future prospects

The probable effect of nanotechnology in the cosmetics industry may be determined by the fact that major companies like L’Oreal, Avon, and Shiseido are making huge expenditures for the research and development in the field of nanotechnology. Regardless of the present international financial emergency, nanotechnology and pioneering cosmetic dermatology might have the probability to help toughen a nation’s economic arrangement. Even though nanotechnology has been used in cosmetic formulations for several years, only a small number of technologies have been engaged so far, primarily liposomes and the metal oxide nanoparticles [60]. These have enhanced characters and numerous advantages in contrast with the conventional formulations. The cause for their narrow use is the ordinary bans and closing on nanotechnology-based cosmetic and skin care products by many organizations. This has led to disinclination in increasing nanotechnology in cosmetic formulations by many companies. For the improvement of nanotechnology, national collaboration with international collaboration is necessary.

8 Safety assessment of nanoparticles

8.1 Effect of surface area and size on nanoparticle toxicity

Nanoparticle size and surface area play a vital role in the nanoparticle functioning and interaction with the biological system. There are many ways by which nanoparticles can be taken up by the cell which is solely dependent upon its size. Nanoparticles < 5 nm cross cell barriers via translocation whereas particles > this gain entry into the cells via processes of macropinocytosis, phagocytosis and by some specific and non-specific transport mechanisms [61]. In vivo toxicity caused by nanoparticles is largely dependent on its size since particles with smaller size leads to generation of Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS) and it mainly imparts damage to the biological system via lipid oxidation and DNA damage [62]. The maximum cellular uptake of nanoparticles irrespective of core composition and surface charge occurs within the range of 10-60 nm [63]. The surface area of nanoparticles plays a major part in the toxicity exerted by nanoparticles. With the decrease in the size of nanoparticles, their surface area increases thus causing an increase in the destructive ability of these nanoparticles. Chen et al. demonstrated that in J774 macrophages, the cytotoxic activity of amorphous silica nanoparticles increased with the increase in the surface area of the nanoparticles [64].

8.2 Effect of surface charge on nanoparticle toxicity

Surface charge of nanoparticles plays a key role in nanoparticle toxicity since it influences their communication with the biological systems. Several qualities of nanoparticles are governed by surface charge mainly binding of plasma proteins like integrity of the blood brain system and permeability through the transmembrane among many other aspects [62]. Positively charged nanoparticles are far more toxic than negatively charged or neutral nanoparticles mainly because of the electrostatic force of attraction that exists in between the positively charged nanoparticle and the negatively charged glycoproteins residing in the cell membrane [61]. Mice treated with positively charged lipid nanoparticles demonstrated hepatotoxicity and nanoparticle-induced interferon type I response in different leukocyte types. Moreover, a pro-inflammatory response due to induction of Th1 cytokine expression was also observed when positively charged nanoparticles were used rather than neutral or negatively charged nanoparticles. Positively charged nanoparticles have shown to cause disruption in the integrity of plasma membranes, larger number of autophagosomes than in negatively charged nanoparticles and high levels of lysosomal and mitochondrial damage.

8.3 Effect of nanoparticle shape on nanoparticle toxicity

The toxicity of nanoparticles is strongly influenced by its shape. Nanoparticles come in different shapes such as spheres, rods, cubes, ellipsoids, sheets and cylinders [61]. Generally, the shape of the nanoparticle influences how the membrane wrapping process will occur under in-vivo conditions during phagocytosis or endocytosis [62]. Toxicity of gold nanoparticles influenced by shape were noticed by Adewale et al. Gold nanoparticles were prepared in shapes of nanorods, nanospheres, nanoprisms and nanotriangles respectively. It was observed that gold nanorods exhibited more toxicity to cells in culture compared to nanospheres [65]. Nanospheres were found to be the least toxic compared to nanoparticles of other shapes [62].

8.4 Effect of aspect ratio on nanoparticle toxicity

Aspect ratio of a nanoparticle is defined as the proportionate relationship between the width of the nanoparticle and its height. It was observed that the higher the aspect ratio of a nanoparticle, the higher its toxicity. The toxicity exhibited by long asbestos fibers of length greater than equal to 5 nm and short asbestos fibers of length less than 5 nm were studied by Boulanger et al. It was observed that long asbestos fibers were more toxic than short asbestos fibers. The data also suggested that the toxicity of asbestos fibers increased with length. Silicon nanowires having high aspect ratios caused lung inflammations and fibrosis thus leading to pulmonary toxicity [66].

8.5 Effect of aggregation and concentration on nanoparticle toxicity

Aggregation of nanoparticles generally depends on their shape, size, chemical composition and structure. It has been observed that aggregation of nanoparticles influences their toxicity and their biological responses they initiate. Large agglomerates of Titanium dioxide nanoparticles induce higher levels of biological response and toxicity compared to smaller aggregates both under in vivo and in vitro conditions. This proves that aggregation increases nanoparticle toxicity. When speaking about concentration and nanoparticle toxicity, it has been observed that, with increase in concentration, the toxicity decreases at a much higher concentration. This claim can be supported by the inhalation studies conducted by Sung et al. The study observed that, at the highest concentration of silver nanoparticles used, there were no distinct changes observed in rats. However, at lower concentrations, the rats showed decreased lung function with granulomatosis and alveolar inflammatory changes [67].

8.6 Effect of chemical composition and crystal structure on nanoparticle toxicity

Chemical composition and crystal structure play a key role in nanoparticle toxicity. In a study carried out by Griffitt et al. it was observed that soluble forms of nano copper and nano silver caused toxicity in all organisms under consideration namely an algal species, Daphnids, and Zebrafish. However, Titanium dioxide did not impose toxicity in any of the organisms under consideration [68]. The crystal structure of a nanoparticle also plays a major part in influencing its toxicity. In a study conducted by Jiang et al. the toxicity of 11 different crystal phase combinations of Titanium dioxide of similar sizes was studied. The Reactive Oxygen Species generation was highest for the amorphous phase followed by anatase form and then mixtures of anatase rutile phases. The lowest Reactive Oxygen Species generation was by rutile samples of Titanium dioxide [69].

8.7 Effect of solvent or media on nanoparticle toxicity

It has been observed that the conditions present in the solvent or media in which the nanoparticles are dispersed influence their toxicity. A study conducted by Li et al. on the toxicity of Zinc Oxide nanoparticles to E. coli and various media components such as 0.85% NaCl, minimal Davis, ultrapure water, phosphate-buffered saline, and Luria–Bertani. The toxicity of Zinc Oxide nanoparticles was found to be in the order of ultrapure water > NaCl > Luria–Bertani > Phosphate-Buffered Saline. Phosphate-buffered saline was the least toxic while ultrapure water showed the highest levels of toxicity [70]. The aggregation of nanoparticles has also been influenced by the media in which they remain suspended thus affecting their toxicity [60]. A study carried out by Drescher et al. depicted the toxicity of Silica nanoparticles in the 3T3 cell line of fibroblast. They observed that small aggregates of Silica nanoparticles were formed in all media containing Fetal Calf Serum (FCS) thus resulting in decreased levels of toxicity [71].

8.8 Effect of surface covering and roughness on nanoparticle toxicity

The surface properties of nanoparticles influence how the nanoparticle will interact with the surrounding cells thus playing a role in determining their toxicity. It also affects their optical, magnetic and electric properties and can also influence the accretion, dispersal and the pharmacokinetics of nanoparticles [61]. This fact can be proven by Iron Oxide nanoparticles which induce cytotoxicity and genotoxicity by Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS) generation. The generation of ROS is mainly influenced by its surface coating and size [72]. Studies conducted by Phenrat et al. on the assessment of toxicity of Nano-sized Zerovalent Iron were done on cultured rodent microglia (BV2) and neurons (N27). It was observed that surface modification of Nano-sized Zerovalent Iron decreased its toxicity by reducing the sedimentation rate thus reducing the exposure of cells to it [73]. Surface roughness also seems to play a major part in influencing the toxicity of nanoparticles as demonstrated by Sultana in their works [74]. It was observed that flower shaped nanoparticles had more toxic effects compared to spherical gold nanoparticles since the surface roughness influences the efficiency of the internalization of gold nanoparticles [74].

9 In vivo toxicity assessment and biodistribution

In vivo toxicity assessment has very less use and is usually used on animal models such as rats or mice. The investigation methods that are employed here are clearance, hematology, bio-distribution, histopathology and many more domains [75]. Biodistribution assay’s help to examine the localization route of nanoparticles to tissue or the organ. Nanoparticles that are detected in this method are killed by the help of radio levels.

9.1 Clearance

It is performed by the examination of metabolism and excretion of nanoparticles at various times after its exposure. It is accompanied by observing the changes in serum chemistry of the particle and cell type after exposure to nanoparticles [75].

9.2 Histopathology

It is usually done after the cell tissue or organ is exposed to the nanoparticle to determine the toxicity level of the nanoparticle. Histopathology is usually performed on exposed tissues such as the eye, brain, lungs, and kidney [75]. This advancement in this in vitro toxicity assessment mostly uses different microfluidics and micro- electrochemistry methods [75].

9.3 In vitro toxicity assessment

It is one of the important methods as it is very advanced compared to in vivo methods. The method is very advantageous due to its minimal ethical concerns, lower cost and faster result prediction. This process is performed by apoptosis assay, oxidative stress assay, proliferation assay [75].

9.3.1 Oxidative stress assay

It is a well-known fact that exposure to nanoparticles can lead to the formation of reactive oxygen species. and reactive nitrogen species. The method to detect these RNS and ROS species utilizes the reaction of oxygen-stable radicals with 2,2,6,6-tetramethylpiperidine. This method uses an X- band paramagnetic resonance. The application of this method is not much used due to its high cost. Hence fluorescent probes are used as they are a cost-effective approach. But the problem with the probe is their insufficiency to interact with a large variety of species. This may give misleading results. Hence to overcome this problem 2ʹ,7ʹ dichlorofluorescein is used to diacetate which is a non-fluorescent probe. Another method to measure oxidative stress is by the measure of lipid peroxidation. This is measured by TBA assay and C11 BIODIPY assay by using malondialdehyde. Other assays that are used are amplex red assay by lipid hydro-peroxide and Nitro blue tetrazolium assay by superoxide dismutase [75].

9.4 Proliferation assay

This assay is used to measure and estimate cellular metabolism by assessing the metabolically active cells. The most common tetrazolium salt used for assessment is 2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide. This technique is advantageous as it yields reproducible results, needs minimum manipulation of model cells, and produces quick yields. This assay depends on the measurement of tetrazolium salt and can cause problems due to additives making a change in the media or its pH making it a very sensitive assay. This assay also produces formazan to the treatment by WST-1 or XTT are proffered as they produce soluble dye. Sometimes the thymidine incorporation method is also used for seeing cellular incorporation. but this is sometimes avoided as it is costlier and can produce toxicity [75].

9.5 Apoptosis assay

It is a well-known fact that apoptosis is a marker that is observed in nanoparticle assessment of toxicity. As the generation of excessive free radicals is a considered cause of DNA damage leading to apoptosis. It is already evident that apoptosis and DNA damage can trigger oxidative stress in an individual. It has been seen that silver nanoparticles trigger apoptosis in live mice in its embryonic stem cells. There are a few assays that can find out apoptosis in an individual. This includes Annexin-V assay, TdT-mediated dUTP-biotin nick end labeling (TUNEL) assay, comet assay. Another technique used is DNA laddering technique that helps in visualizing the endonuclease cleavage site of apoptosis [75]. Any irregular reduction in size by the help of DNA fragmentation helps in confirming the induction of apoptosis. Agarose gel electrophoresis is also used in the DNA laddering process as it can actively separate necrosis and apoptosis. There are several genomic fragments that are obtained during this electrophoresis whose structure tells us the type of cells i.e. irregular shaped patterns are necrotic cells and regular ladder shaped patterns indicate apoptosis. The main markers that are used are propidium iodide and Annexin V. Another assay called the comet assay is another sensitive tool that is used and helps to detect any mutagenic potential of the material that is tested. It can easily detect double stranded and single stranded breaks in the cells (Fig. 5). It can also quantify DNA damage, DNA–protein or DNA-DNA cross links and alkali labile sites [75].

Fig. 5
figure 5

Various in vitro tests for safety assessment of nanoparticles

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9.6 Mathematical modeling

Mathematical models can help in predicting the tissue concentration and the toxicity exhibited by it and its active species. These methods are useful for finding chemical risk assessment. Hence these models are efficiently used to find the toxicity of nanomaterial and help in their assessment. These assessments are called physiologically based kinetic models. These models help in deposition, metabolism, excretion and quantitative descriptions of chemicals during different reactions. These models have different parameters such as physiological flow rates, tissue volumes with specific parameters such as diffusion across cell membrane, rate of absorption, rate of biochemical reactions etc. They are mainly used to extrapolate the high dose low dose difference, kinetic behavior of chemicals during biological monitoring. Recently they are being used to improve in vitro and in vivo toxicity data by using in vivo extrapolation. and ADME parameters.

The European Union has made an organization called REACH (Registration, Evaluation, Authorization and Restriction of Chemicals) to help in protecting the human health and environment along with enhancing the competitiveness of using nanoparticles. This also has reduced chemical testing by using alternative methods of managing hazards. In compliance with REACH companies produce materials that are below its concern standards [75]. Hence mathematical modeling works as a very preventive measure for controlling the toxicity of the nanoparticles.

10 Current scenario and future prospects of nanotechnology

Nanotechnology has gained recognition in a wide range of fields due to their exceptional physicochemical properties. One of the fields among them being cosmeceuticals and skin care industry [76]. Nanoparticles in the cosmeceuticals and skin care industry have been used for over 30 years [77, 78]. A wide range of nanoparticles such as solid-lipid nanoparticles, cubosomes, dendrimers, carbon nanotubes, liposomes, nano gold and nano silver among various other nanoparticles have been reported to be used in cosmeceuticals and skin care industry in products ranging from creams, lotions, sunscreens and anti-ageing products to name a few. The use of nanoparticles has several pros and cons. The advantageous properties of nanoparticles such as high stability and biocompatibility among other properties have led to the achievement of several goals in the cosmeceuticals and skin care industry such as,

  • Efficient delivery of target molecules to a specific area without degradation.

  • To target specific cells and to reduce contact and effect on other cells as much as possible.

  • To achieve long lasting desirable effects while being stable.

  • To cause least to no amount of toxicity.

Although there is a huge potential of nanoparticles in the cosmeceutical and skin care industry, one cannot simply overlook the cons associated with them. The high surface to volume ratio of nanoparticles makes them of a highly reactive nature thus increasing their toxicity [78]. Their high penetration power often affects cells in a negative manner and often leads to the generation of Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS) [79]. The use of nanoparticles have also shown to cause significant inflammation and irritation in biological systems. Moreover, the highly effective ways in which nanoparticles can cross several biological barriers in the biological system cause them to enter blood to reach different organ systems where they exhibit fatal and deleterious effects. Since the use of nanoparticles in cosmeceuticals and skin care is vigorous, it should be mentioned that, in the current scenario and future perspective of nanoparticles, one important goal to achieve is to reduce and mainly replace animal testing wherever possible using other alternative methods to animal testing while achieving the necessary safety levels that are needed to use nanoparticles in the cosmeceutical and skincare industry. Nanotechnology in the cosmeceutical and skin care industry soon aims to efficiently use economical nanoparticles in correct doses to ensure safety and biocompatibility in biological systems while imposing least and preferably no harm to animals while assessing their toxicity in the laboratory [79].

11 Conclusion

The advent of nanotechnology has brought about a revolution in numerous sectors worldwide, including energy, biomedicine, and nano cosmeceuticals, among others. Nanoparticles possess a plethora of favorable properties such as high biocompatibility, large surface area, microscopic size, high penetration, and stability, making them ideal candidates for use in the nano cosmeceutical sector. Their application in skin protection through nano cosmeceuticals and nano pharmaceuticals has yielded groundbreaking benefits that were unattainable with traditional methods.

However, despite the advantages of nanoparticle utilization in this sector, it is crucial to acknowledge the potential adverse effects that may ensue. The use of nanoparticles in cosmeceuticals can lead to toxicity and pose risks to various organ systems. Additionally, the gradual emergence of pico technology, transitioning from a theoretical concept to a new domain, promises to address some of the drawbacks associated with nanoparticles across various fields, particularly in biomedicine. Although pico technology may offer more advanced properties than nanotechnology, nanoparticles maintain an advantage due to their diverse range of crucial advantageous properties.

Therefore, the use of nanoparticles in nano cosmeceuticals and nano pharmaceuticals represents both a boon and a bane in their own right. The global research community is dedicated to mitigating the drawbacks associated with nanoparticle usage, thereby striving to provide a safe and effective means of skin protection through nanotechnology.