Abstract
Background
Professional culture is a powerful influence in emergency departments, but incompletely understood. Disasters magnify cultural realities, and as such the COVID-19 pandemic offered a unique opportunity to better understand emergency medicine (EM) values, practices, and beliefs.
Methods
We conducted a collaborative ethnography at a tertiary care center during the acute phase of the response to the threat of COVID-19 (March–May 2020). Collaborative ethnography is a method that partners directly with communities during design, data gathering, and analysis to study culture. An ED-based research team gathered data including field notes from 300 h of participant observation and informal interviews, 42 semi-structured interviews, and 57 departmental documents. Data were deductively coded using a previously generated framework for understanding EM culture.
Results
Each of seven core values from the original framework were identified in the dataset and further contextualized understanding of EM culture. COVID-19 exacerbated pre-existing tensions and threats to the core values of EM. For example, the desire to provide patient-centered care was impeded by strict visitor restrictions; the ability to treat life-threatening illness was impaired by new resuscitation room layouts and infection control procedures; and subtle changes in protocols had downstream impact on flow and the ability to balance needs and resources at a system level. The cultural values related to teams were protective and strengthened during this time. The pandemic exposed problems with the status quo, underscored inherent tensions between ED values, and highlighted threats to self-identity.
Conclusion
COVID-19 has highlighted and compounded existing tensions and threats to the core values of EM, underscoring a critical mismatch between values and practice. Realignment of the realities of ED work with staff values is urgently needed.
Résumé
Contexte
La culture professionnelle est une influence puissante dans les services d'urgence, mais elle est incomplètement comprise. Les catastrophes amplifient les réalités culturelles et, à ce titre, la pandémie de COVID-19 a offert une occasion unique de mieux comprendre les valeurs, les pratiques et les croyances de la médecine d'urgence (MU).
Méthodes
Nous avons mené une ethnographie collaborative dans un centre de soins tertiaires pendant la phase aiguë de la réponse à la menace du COVID-19 (mars-mai 2020). L’ethnographie collaborative est une méthode qui s’associe directement aux communautés pendant la conception, la collecte de données et l’analyse pour étudier la culture. Une équipe de recherche basée à l'urgence a recueilli des données, y compris des notes de terrain tirées de 300 heures d’observation des participants et d’entrevues informelles, de 42 entrevues semi-structurées et de 57 documents ministériels. Les données ont été codées de manière déductive à l'aide d'un cadre précédemment créé pour comprendre la culture de la MU.
Résultats
Chacune des sept valeurs fondamentales du cadre original a été identifiée dans l'ensemble de données et a permis de mieux comprendre la culture de la MU. COVID-19 a exacerbé les tensions préexistantes et les menaces qui pèsent sur les valeurs fondamentales de la MU. Par exemple, le désir de fournir des soins centrés sur le patient a été entravé par des restrictions strictes concernant les visiteurs ; la capacité de traiter des maladies potentiellement mortelles a été compromise par les nouvelles dispositions des salles de réanimation et des procédures de contrôle des infections ; et des changements subtils dans les protocoles ont eu un impact en aval sur le flux et la capacité à équilibrer les besoins et les ressources au niveau du système. Les valeurs culturelles liées aux équipes étaient protectrices et renforcées pendant cette période. La pandémie a mis en évidence les problèmes liés au statu quo, souligné les tensions inhérentes entre les valeurs des services d’urgence et mis en évidence les menaces pour l'identité personnelle.
Conclusion
COVID-19 a mis en évidence et aggravé les tensions et les menaces existantes pour les valeurs fondamentales de la MU, soulignant un décalage critique entre les valeurs et la pratique. Il est urgent de réaligner les réalités du travail dans les services d'urgence sur les valeurs du personnel.
Similar content being viewed by others
Explore related subjects
Discover the latest articles, news and stories from top researchers in related subjects.Avoid common mistakes on your manuscript.
What is known about the topic? |
Professional culture is important to the practice of emergency medicine (EM) but incompletely understood. Disasters are a time when culture can be easily studied, as such COVID-19 presented an opportunity to learn more about the culture of EM. |
What did this study ask? |
How does COVID-19 expose and challenge our collective EM values and beliefs? |
What did this study find? |
There are tensions between, and threats to the values central to EM that were exposed by COVID-19. The values and beliefs that clinicians hold do not always align with the realities of the practice. |
Why does this study matter to clinicians? |
The tensions between values and practice provides an explanation for understanding the challenges emergency clinicians face and provides impetus for organizations to align operations with what matters most to clinicians. |
Introduction
Professional culture—the values, beliefs and practices that underpin a group—is a powerful influence in emergency departments (EDs), but incompletely understood [1,2,3,4,5]. Although emergency clinicians often draw strength from their professional culture, they can also become distressed when workplace realities conflict with their emergency medicine (EM) values and beliefs [6,7,8]. A deeper understanding of EM culture might help clinicians recognize values and beliefs as a source of support in their work, and also to help understand growing unease in the face of escalation of challenging workplace realities.
Disasters efficiently magnify existing culture through several mechanisms (i.e., clear showcasing of value-based decisions, trade-offs, and priorities; more deliberate and open reflection on what is important; and a regression to intuitive behaviors) [9]. As such, the COVID-19 pandemic presented a unique opportunity to explore the values of EM in Canada. Increasingly, anthropologists, experts in the study of culture, are called upon to study hospital behavior to inform healthcare strategy [10,11,12,13]. Recently, they have sought to better understand the culture of EM and Purdy et al. has developed a framework that highlights seven core values as foundational to the beliefs and practices of the speciality (Fig. 1) [1,2,3,4,5]. This framework, serves as a tangible starting point for reflection around the EM community’s professional cultural experiences and challenges as magnified in the early phases of the COVID-19 pandemic.
Using data from an ethnography that informed the early departmental response to COVID-19, we sought to understand the impact of the pandemic on the manifestation of ED values in a Canadian tertiary care emergency department.
Methods
We conducted a collaborative ethnography during the first 12 weeks of the COVID-19 pandemic. Collaborative ethnography is a method that partners directly with communities during design, data gathering, and analysis to study local culture in a way that is useful for those groups [14]. Our pragmatic approach was designed to provide local ED leadership with a weekly “pulse” from the floor to support real-time decision-making, while also being robust enough to provide in-depth insight into EM culture.
Setting
Two sites associated with the Kingston Health Sciences Centre—Kingston General Hospital (KGH) ED and Hotel Dieu Hospital (HDH) Urgent Care were included. Kingston, ON, Canada has a population of approximately 136,000 and visits to both sites combined average ~ 100,000 per year. The study took place from March 15, 2020 to May 31, 2020.
Creating the research team
A critical phase of collaborative ethnographies is engaging a local community in the design and conduct of the study. After consultation with department leadership by EP (EM resident and MSc in Applied Anthropology), the project was advertised. Any individuals in the department wishing to participate were included in the core research team. They assisted in design and had primary roles as data collectors in the collaborative ethnography process. Then, they were partners in the interpretation and distribution of results. The local individuals and roles at the time were EP (resident physician), SD (ED physician and quality improvement lead), LM (Nurse Educator), MP (Registered Nurse), KW (Registered Nurse and charge nurse), LR (ED physician and wellness lead), and DD (emergency physician and competency-based medical education lead). The external team members included DH (PhD Applied Anthropologist, specializing in disaster anthropology), RB (retired ED physician), GF (medical student), and HM (medical student).
Participants
All staff (~ 300) working in the ED were included in participant observation and eligible for interviews. This included nurses, physicians, residents, unit clerks, respiratory therapists, environmental services experts, porters, administrators, and hospital leaders. Purposive sampling [15] of this group and open self-referral was used to identify participants for informal and formal interviews across the study period.
Data collection
Field notes: All local research team members (EP, LM, MP, KW, LR, DD, and SD) recorded field notes during a convenience sampling of their shifts and from informal interviews using a template (Supplementary file 1). Observations occurred while on shift to minimize COVID exposures.
Interviews: EP conducted semi-structured interviews with participants (Supplementary file 2). The interviews were conducted by telephone, audio recorded, and transcribed. Participants had the opportunity to check transcripts.
Document review: Official documents including department daily/weekly updates, and clinical updates, and reports provided to ED leadership (Supplementary file 3) were archived and reviewed.
Data analysis
Data were analyzed using theoretical thematic analysis in Nvivo 12.0 [16, 17]. Data were coded deductively by both EP and GF using the framework for EM culture (Fig. 1) weekly [1]. During the coding process they met regularly to discuss key findings, interactions, and additional reflections on the data and their positioning. These results were shared with the local study team and further interpretation discussed. The real-time analysis informed reports to ED leadership (Supplementary file 2) and shaped further data gathering.
Member checking
At the end of the study period, collated results were summarized in a report and shared with the entire ED staff and leadership via email and placement around the department (Supplementary file 4). Informal verbal feedback was sought and two online town halls were hosted to solicit community perspective.
Ethics
Queen’s University Health Sciences and Affiliated Teaching Hospital Research Ethics Board approval #6029355.
Results
We conducted over 300 hrs of participant observation and informal interviews which informed over 47,000 words of field notes. EP conducted 42 semi-structured interviews including 9 attending physicians, 11 residents, 12 nurses, 6 core leadership team members, 1 paramedic, 2 porters, and 1 environmental services expert. Interviews ranged from 20 to 50 min. 57 departmental documents were archived and reviewed.
We readily identified aspects related to each of the values and beliefs from the EM values framework (Table 1). “The team approach” (Value 4) seemed protective and was even strengthened during the acute phase (Table 1). “Managing uncertainty” (Value 2) supported EM teams’ ability to navigate this tumultuous time. Most striking, however, were the threats to each of the other core values (Table 1) and the magnified tension between values. Below we outline how a system-wide response in the early weeks of COVID-19 exposed a problematic status quo, how unavoidable tensions become unmanageable, and how threats to values impact self-identity. During member checking, results resonated with colleagues and no significant changes were made to the interpretation of findings.
The honeymoon period exposed a broken system
During the first few weeks of the COVID-19 crisis, the emergency department benefited significantly from system re-organization and increased resource allocation alleviating usual threats to ED values (i.e., boarding, overcrowding, lack of resources). This contrast allowed participants to recognize and describe many longstanding distressing daily realities that predated the pandemic. For example, they were troubled by the normalized practice of hallway medicine. As one nurse said,
“You should have a room for everybody. The hallway thing, I've seen it develop over the years and it's distressing because it's not a good thing and I know we're not the only place that does it, that's for sure, but how did we get to that?” – Nurse (int 23)
In the early phase of the crisis, stretchers in hallways were notably missing as system-wide resources relieved pressure. A glimpse of a system that was better functioning made going back to the disheartening realities of the usual system’s shortcomings more troublesome once misbalance returned.
“I have lived…in a medical system that has normalized emergency care for patients in what now, I'm actually realizing is a very problematic way [hallway medicine].”- EP Field notes
As time went on these gains, and the constructive system orientation towards the situation, disappeared. Not long after our study started, the brief COVID-19 honeymoon period ended. When that happened, emergency staff were left with significant challenges in negotiating a rapidly escalating and increasingly impossible balance of needs and resources to care for patients—a situation that simultaneously threatened multiple core values. The appetite to creatively optimize clinical environments and processes faded, further magnifying the misbalance for clinicians on the ground.
“[there is now] some strain around where to put patients now that volume has increased. There is limited acute/resuscitation hallway space, no offload, and now the subacute zones have the “long stay” patients back...” – LR Field notes
Unavoidable tensions become unmanageable
Participants identified classic tensions between core values that are central to the practice of EM. For example, “patients and families at the center of care” (Value 3) often conflicts with the ability to “balance needs and resources at a system level”(Value 4). Participants suggested that the line differentiating expected tensions between these values and unacceptable stress from unmanageable conflicts between values was precarious and often crossed even before the pandemic. COVID-19 increased the likelihood of predictable tensions between values becoming demoralizingly unmanageable.
Visitor restrictions were one example. In the early days staff were bothered by, but could make sense of, the need for restrictions. The need to protect the system from uncertainty and disease was acceptable, despite potential harm to individual patients. But as time went on the threat to the value of patient and family centered care became more problematic. Distress ultimately came when providers felt that the potential benefit to the system no longer seemed to justify the individual harm.
“ …It’s just so against everything that we’ve always done and really believe in. …just putting yourself in their position and not being able to see a loved one in such a time of need.” – Nurse (int 3)
The requirement to put the system above individual patients, and the distress that caused staff, mirrored many of the more usual problematic challenges EM providers face when attempting to access care for patients in a system with limited resources—such as wanting to schedule an outpatient follow-up for a patient (to satisfy values 1, 2 and 3) but not having access to the appropriate clinic (Value 4).
The threat to identity
Emergency providers value being good at their job and experience a profound heaviness, sometimes even manifesting as tears in our interviews, when that identity was threatened. This was most obvious when providers felt the work they were doing did not, or could not, align with their core values.
For example, though emergency providers pride themselves in “managing uncertainty” (Value 2), they were pushed to the limit as ever evolving infection control protocols required re-organization of resuscitation rooms, a change in triage protocols, and department layout. Staff found these environmental and process changes a direct obstacle to effectively “identifying and treating dangerous pathology”(Value 1).
“…everything got changed … even though I've been in there for weeks on end, I still don't know where stuff is…I think it also has affected some of the cases that I've been involved in.” – Attending (int 15)
On a more abstract level, underlying tension exists between “identifying and treating dangerous pathology” (Value 1), “managing uncertainty” (Value 2) and “EM is part of self-identity” (Value 7). COVID-19 highlighted how interconnected these values are. The threat of a new disease overtly challenged the traditional cognitive schema and systems that allow the care team to manage the uncertainty around critical illness effectively and this in turn impacted the confidence and self-worth of participants. The constant vigilance required to simultaneously manage uncertainty and expertly make critical diagnoses is not new in the COVID era but the increasing challenge in doing so emphasized how closely tied these capabilities are to self-identity and self-worth.
"You know, the two obvious things [that I worry about] are that I'm going to over-Covidize everything [think every presentation is COVID related]and just downplay something else and someone is going to have a bad outcome as a result of that..." – Attending (int 2)
Discussion
Interpretation of findings
The acute phase of the COVID-19 crisis offered a powerful lens for understanding the values and beliefs that underpin EM culture. We uncovered critical threats to EM values then saw the negative impact of holding a certain set of values but being unable to practice them. The readily identified threats to and tensions between core values can be used to contextualize current challenges facing the broader EM community. The results of this ethnography offer a helpful voice in merging the conversations related to EM systems and the rising levels of burnout.
Comparison to previous studies
A recent Canadian Journal of Emergency Medicine editorial by Atkinson et al. outlined systems-based challenges threatening the current paradigm of EM including disproportionately high usage, lack of access to primary care, access block, and lack of long-term care funding [18]. The searing commentary resonated with emergency physicians across the country, as evidenced by robust online discussion and the second highest Altmetric Attention Score of all time for any CJEM article [19]. Meanwhile news outlets and researchers have identified alarming levels of discontent manifesting as burnout, exodus, and depression in up to 60% of the Canadian EM community—with obvious and dramatic implications for the national workforce [20,21,22,23,24]. The ethnography we present acts as a direct link between these systems frustrations and a looming workforce catastrophe.
The opportunity to have values and work align is a concept known as “value congruence”. It is essential to an effective and sustainable workforce. Across industries it is critical to longevity and operational success [6,7,8,9]. Unfortunately, our analysis spotlights a troubling degree of value incongruence in the current practice of EM that has been further magnified by COVID-19. Our study provides empirical data that supports the desperate need for realignment of the EM community’s values with actual work in EDs.
Strengths and limitations
This was a single-site study in the early phases of the pandemic response in a geographic area with low COVID-19 case numbers at the time of the study. While many of our findings will be universal, some issues identified will be unique to our specific context. Some degree of turmoil may be explained by the unique stresses of COVID-19, which other studies have also identified [20, 26]. Undoubtedly, as the pandemic has evolved, the nature of the threat to values has changed. From collective experience, we speculate that that our findings related to value incongruences for our EM community are even more stark now than the acute phase that was the focus of this report.
We focused on areas of tension between and the threats to values in the ED but recognize that some aspects of EM work, mostly as they relate to teams, remain well aligned and even strengthened. We witnessed committed groups of people doing excellent work despite the profound challenges faced. These teams currently act as a buffer to the negative realities of value incongruence. Such team resilience is a phenomenon that should be further studied and organizationally harnessed.
Clinical implications
Unfortunately, there are no simple fixes. We cannot offer a clear table of actions or easy to implement suggestions based on our findings. Issues that are as seemingly inconsequential as a poorly timed electronic medical record downtime to as significant as hospital funding models will impact whether EM values and practice align for clinicians on the ground. We do, however, hope that raising awareness about the concept of value congruence and providing the pragmatic structure of the EM values framework will be useful in several ways. For individuals in the face of ongoing threats, it can be a tool to cognitively frame experiences—admittedly a strategy that has limited impact and is only helpful in the short term. For leaders, it may provide practical scaffolding for unwavering defence of EM values for decisions at every management level. For hospitals and systems, it should provide urgency and direction for aligning funding, processes, and procedures with core values of those on the ground. Each of these requires a recognition of and conversation about the values and beliefs we hold, the importance of reconciling tensions that exist, and a brighter vision for our future. The alternate reality must also be faced. Under sustained threat, clinicians are likely to reconcile the incongruence experienced by shifting their values. If the system cannot match the current values of emergency providers, providers will match their values to the system. The culture of EM—the values, beliefs and practices that make us who we are—will change.
Research implications
Our single-site study should serve as a starting point for research related to value congruence, staff retention, and identifying health system policies that support alignment of work as experienced with the embodied core values of EM staff. Methodologically, we are the first group to apply the framework for EM culture (Fig. 1) by Purdy et al. in a clinical and Canadian context [1]. We did identify the need for changes to the framework as it related to teams (Fig. 2). This evolution highlights how understanding of culture is fluid and everchanging. There are likely to be local variations when applied in other sites. The framework is not meant to be a fundamental truth, rather a useful tool for exploring the culture of EM.
Conclusion
COVID-19 has highlighted and compounded existing tensions and threats to the core values of EM. Realignment of the realities of ED work with staff values is needed to sustain the culture of EM in Canada.
References
Purdy E, Alexander C, Caughley M, Bassett S, Brazil V. Identifying and transmitting the culture of emergency medicine through simulation. Aem Educ Train. 2019;3(2):118–28. https://doi.org/10.1002/aet2.10325.
Person J, Spiva L, Hart P. The culture of an emergency department: an ethnographic study. Int Emerg Nurs. 2013;21(4):222–7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ienj.2012.10.001.
Fry M. An ethnography: understanding emergency nursing practice belief systems. Int Emerg Nurs. 2012;20(3):120–5. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ienj.2011.09.002.
Hightower R. Doing ethnography in an urban hospital emergency department setting: understanding how culture was related to emergency physician habitus. Wayne State University Dissertations. 2010 (Paper 167).
Powell M, Glendinning S, Broto VC, Dewberry E, Walsh C. Shaped by shock: staff on the emergency department “Shop Floor.” Anthropol Act. 2014. https://doi.org/10.3167/aia.2014.210203.
Asensio-Martínez Á, Leiter MP, Gascón S, et al. Value congruence, control, sense of community and demands as determinants of burnout syndrome among hospitality workers. Int J Occup Saf Ergo. 2017;25(2):1–32. https://doi.org/10.1080/10803548.2017.1367558.
Saito Y, Igarashi A, Noguchi-Watanabe M, Takai Y, Yamamoto-Mitani N. Work values and their association with burnout/work engagement among nurses in long-term care hospitals. J Nurs Manag. 2018;26(4):393–402. https://doi.org/10.1111/jonm.12550.
Baugh JJ, Takayesu JK, White BA, Raja AS. Beyond the Maslach burnout inventory: addressing emergency medicine burnout with Maslach’s full theory. J Am Coll Emerg Physicians Open. 2020;1(5):1044–9. https://doi.org/10.1002/emp2.12101.
Henry D. Anthropological contributions to the study of disasters. In: McEntire D, Blanchard W, editors. Disciplines, disasters, and emergency management: the convergence and divergence of concepts, issues and trends from the research literature. Federal Emergency Management Agency; 2005.
Purdy EI, McLean D, Alexander C, et al. Doing our work better, together: a relationship-based approach to defining the quality improvement agenda in trauma care. BMJ Open Qual. 2020;9(1): e000749. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjoq-2019-000749.
Kline J. Academic Emergency Medicine Editor-in-Chief Pick of the Month (Published online 2017).
Bate, P. The role of stories and storytelling in organizational change efforts: the anthropology of an intervention within a UK hospital. Interv Res. 2004;1(1):27–42.
Liberati EG, Tarrant C, Willars J, et al. How to be a very safe maternity unit: an ethnographic study. Soc Sci Med. 2019;223:64–72.
Lassiter LE, Eric L. The Chicago guide to collaborative ethnography. Chicago: University of Chicago Press; 2005.
MaDC T. Purposive sampling as a tool for informant selection. Ethnobot Res Appl. 2007;5:147–58. https://doi.org/10.17348/era.5.0.147-158.
Braun V, Clarke V. Thematic analysis. In: Cooper H, ed. APA handbook of research methods in psychology: volume 2—research designs. American Psychological Association; 2012. pp. 57–71. https://doi.org/10.1037/13620-004.
QSR International Pty Ltd. (2020) NVivo (released in March).
Atkinson P, McGeorge K, Innes G. Saving emergency medicine: is less more? Can J Emerg Med. 2022;24:9–11. https://doi.org/10.1007/s43678-021-00237-1.
Altmetric. Altmetric-saving emergency medicine: is less more?. [online]. 2022. https://link.altmetric.com/details/1210968084#score. Accessed 24 Apr 2022.
de Wit K, Mercuri M, Wallner C, et al. Canadian emergency physician psychological distress and burnout during the first 10 weeks of COVID-19: A mixed-methods study. J Am Coll Emerg Physicians Open. 2020;1(5):1030–8. https://doi.org/10.1002/emp2.12225.
Lim R, Van Aarsen K, Gray S, Rang L, Fitzpatrick J, Fischer L. Emergency medicine physician burnout and wellness in Canada before COVID 19: a national survey. Can J Emerg Med. 2020;22(5):603–7.
Mercuri M, Clayton N, Archambault P, Wallner C, Boulos ME, Chan TM, Gérin-Lajoie C, Gray S, Schwartz L, Ritchie K, de Wit K. Canadian emergency medicine physician burnout: a survey of Canadian emergency physicians during the second wave of the COVID-19 pandemic. Can J Emerg Med. 2022;27:1–5.
Grant K. Canadian nurses are leaving in Droves, worn down by 16 merciless months on the front lines of COVID-19. In: The Globe and Mail. 2021. https://www.theglobeandmail.com/canada/article-canadian-nurses-are-leaving-in-droves-worn-down-by-16-merciless-months/. Accessed 10 Sept 2021.
Yong E. Why healthcare workers are quitting in droves. The Atlantic. 2021. Why health-care workers are quitting in droves—The Atlantic. Accessed 19 Jan 2022.
Leiter MP, Frank E, Matheson TJ. Demands, values, and burnout: relevance for physicians. Can Fam Physician. 2009;55(12):1224–5.
Palinkas LA, Whiteside L, Nehra D, et al. Rapid ethnographic assessment of the COVID-19 pandemic April 2020 ‘surge’ and its impact on service delivery in an Acute Care Medical Emergency Department and Trauma Center. BMJ Open. 2020;10(10): e041772. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2020-041772.
Funding
Open Access funding enabled and organized by CAUL and its Member Institutions. No funding sources to declare.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
All authors contributed met the ICMJE minimal standards for authorship. This study was originally conceived by lead author, EP. HM, LM, KW, LR, DD, RB, DH and SD made substantive contributions to the refinement of the study design. EP, LM, MP, KW, LR, DD, and SD participated in acquisition of data. EP, HM, GF and SD completed initial interpretation of data and all authors were involved in the interpretation of the findings. All authors contributed to the revision of this manuscript and approve the final version to be published.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
EP, GF, HM, LM, MP, KW, LR, DD, RB, DH and SD have no conflicts to declare.
Supplementary Information
Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.
Rights and permissions
Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.
About this article
Cite this article
Purdy, E., Forster, G., Manlove, H. et al. COVID-19 has heightened tensions between and exposed threats to core values of emergency medicine. Can J Emerg Med 24, 585–598 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s43678-022-00383-0
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s43678-022-00383-0