1 Introduction

Farm tourism has grown rapidly in recent decades as tourists seek experiences in natural, rural settings away from crowded destinations [1]. Farm tourism has been developed for its symbiotic relationship where neither tourism nor farming could be justified [2]. It, also, has become an alternative solution to the severe economic depression in rural areas [3]. Visits to farms allow tourists to experience agricultural production firsthand, interact with farm animals, and enjoy scenic rural landscapes [4]. However, farm tourism also brings environmental challenges as the operations have an ecological footprint and must manage their impacts. There is a need to better understand how farm tourism businesses can promote environmentally sustainable behavior among visitors to minimize negative impacts on the farm environment. Farm tourism allows rural population to diversify their income and social goals by practicing hospitality [5]. In the Philippines, for instance, the enactment of the Farm Tourism Development Act of 2016 has paved the way for farm tourism growth. However, challenges persist, including farmers’ lack of skills and capital investment potential to convert their farms into tourism sites [4]. Similarly, stakeholders emphasize the need for sustainable practices, including using recycled resources, promoting safety conditions, and enhancing farmworkers’ skills. Addressing challenges such as lack of partnership with residents and providing training opportunities is crucial for long-term success [6]. As farm tourism continues to expand, a commitment to sustainable practices is essential to ensure its positive impact on both visitors and the environment [7]. Overall, farm tourism largely utilizes sustainable practices, which decrease harmful effect on environment [8].

Past research has examined various factors that influence pro-environmental behaviors in tourism settings [9,10,11,12]. Studies have found that personal values shape how tourists view their responsibility towards the environment and their vision for ecological sustainability [13, 14]. Specifically, the extent to which tourists accept responsibility for environmental problems and have a long-term, holistic perspective on human-nature relationships (termed “ecological worldview”) mediates the relationship between situational context and behavioral outcomes [15, 16]. Meanwhile, other research has identified key behaviors within tourism operations and among visitors that either conserve resources or minimize waste, including energy conservation, solid waste reduction, and respecting ecologically sensitive sites [17, 18]. Health, energy-saving, and environment-related activities are three key factors that comprise the structure of tourism and hospitality and important motivating factors of the pro-environmental behavior [19].

While these studies provide insight into environmental behaviors and personal values separately, little research has integrated these different strands to develop a comprehensive model of how farm tourism businesses can cultivate sustainable visitor practices. Furthermore, there remains a conspicuous gap in the literature concerning integrated models that comprehensively elucidate the intricate interplay between environmental behavior, personal values, and tourist outcomes. There is also a dearth of integrated frameworks that holistically capture the complex interactions among these variables within the unique context of farm tourism settings. Consequently, understanding how tourists’ environmental behaviors are influenced by their personal values, and in turn, how these behaviors shape tourist outcomes, such as well-being and attachment to the destination, remains largely unexplored. This gap underscores the need for empirical research that integrates these key dimensions to provide a more nuanced understanding of sustainable tourism practices and their implications for farm tourism operators and destination managers. Importantly, there is a lack of understanding around how tourists’ personal values mediate the relationship between opportunities provided by farm tourism operations to engage in behaviors like power conservation, ecologically aware practices, and waste management, and subsequent impacts on tourist well-being, place attachment, and product loyalty. Filling this gap would help farm tourism operators design more effective sustainability programs and messages to positively influence visitor impacts.

The selection of farm tourism as the focus of the current study was based on several factors. Firstly, farm tourism has witnessed a significant increase in popularity in recent years, with more tourists seeking authentic and immersive experiences in natural, rural settings [1]. This growing trend presents both opportunities and challenges, particularly concerning environmental sustainability and stewardship. Furthermore, farm tourism offers a unique context for studying the relationship between environmental behavior, personal values, and tourist outcomes. Unlike conventional tourism settings, farm tourism environments often involve direct interactions with agricultural practices, natural landscapes, and local communities, which may influence tourists’ attitudes and behaviors towards the environment [20]. Additionally, the choice of farm tourism aligns with broader societal concerns about sustainable agriculture, food production, and rural development. By studying sustainable practices in farm tourism, the current study contributes to broader discussions about the role of tourism in promoting environmental conservation, fostering rural development, and enhancing the well-being of visitors [21, 22].

The purpose of this study is to develop and test an integrative model linking environmental behavior factors, personal values, and tourist outcomes in the context of farm tourism. Specifically, the study will examine:

  • The relationships between opportunities at farm tourism operations to engage in power conservation, ecologically aware behavior, and ecological waste management as independent variables, and tourist well-being as the dependent variable.

  • The mediating roles of tourists’ ascription of responsibility for environmental issues and ecological worldview as personal values between the environmental behavior factors and well-being.

  • The impact of increased tourist well-being on sense of place attachment to the farm and product/experience attachment.

By addressing this crucial gap, the study aims to provide insight on how to design farm tourism sustainability programs and communication to maximize environmental stewardship among visitors through appealing to personal values.

The results could guide operators to better manage their ecological footprint and visitor impacts. Additionally, the current study fills a critical gap on understanding how pro-environmental behaviors intersect with visitors’ personal values and subsequent outcomes, particularly within the context of farm tourism. By doing so, this research contributes to advancing the understanding of sustainable tourism practices by providing insights tailored to the unique characteristics of farm tourism experiences. Additionally, the study offers practical implications for farm tourism operators and destination managers, guiding the design of effective sustainability programs and communication strategies to promote environmental stewardship among visitors. Moreover, the findings would underscore the importance of transparent communication strategies that emphasize the positive impacts of sustainable practices, fostering a sense of responsibility and commitment among visitors towards environmental stewardship.

2 Literature review

2.1 Power conservation and personal value and well-being

Ascription of responsibility significantly influences the consumer behavior in the context of circular economy [23]. The ascription of responsibility in this context means someone’s assumptions toward other people who are more responsible for something that happens [24]. This concept is often linked with perception theory [25], where perception is defined as the process by which people plan and interpret the impression of their senses to create assumptions about their environment [26].

Power conservation, a key aspect of pro-environmental behavior, has been found to significantly influence personal values, particularly in the context of farm tourism. This influence is most evident in the subscales of ascription of responsibility and ecological vision [27]. Farm tourism, with its inherent connection to nature and sustainability, provides an ideal setting for the manifestation of these values. The ascription of responsibility, or the extent to which individuals feel personally accountable for environmental preservation, is often heightened in these settings. Tourists engaging in power conservation practices on farms are more likely to develop a strong sense of personal responsibility towards the environment [28, 29]. This is likely due to the tangible impact of their actions, which can directly affect the farm ecosystem.

Similarly, power conservation also influences the ecological vision of individuals. Ecological vision refers to the broader understanding and appreciation of ecological principles and the interconnectedness of all life forms [30]. In the context of farm tourism, power conservation practices often require an understanding of these principles. For instance, the use of renewable energy sources on farms can serve as a practical demonstration of sustainable living, thereby enhancing tourists’ ecological vision [31].

From another perspective, tourists participating in sustainable practices often report enhanced well-being [32]. This is likely due to the sense of satisfaction derived from contributing to environmental preservation and the psychological benefits of engaging with nature [33]. Moreover, power conservation activities often involve physical tasks, such as using manual tools instead of power tools, which can contribute to physical well-being [34]. The sense of achievement from completing these tasks can also enhance psychological well-being [35]. Furthermore, power conservation can lead to social well-being. Participating in these activities can foster a sense of community among tourists, as they work together towards a common goal of sustainability [36].

Therefore, in general, power conservation may play a significant role in the realm of sustainable practices as explained in important three theoretical frameworks. First, research in environmental psychology has shown that environmentally sustainable behaviors, such as power conservation, can contribute to individuals’ well-being by fostering a sense of environmental mastery, personal accomplishment, and connection to nature [36, 37]. Second, within the context of environmental behavior, social cognitive theory suggests that individuals’ beliefs about their ability to enact environmental actions (self-efficacy) and their perceptions of the consequences of these actions (outcome expectancies) influence their engagement in environmentally sustainable behaviors [38]. Power conservation practices can enhance individuals’ sense of self-efficacy and outcome expectancies related to environmental conservation, leading to increased well-being and a greater sense of responsibility for environmental issues [39, 40]. Lastly, power conservation is considered a pro-environmental behavior that contributes to the conservation of natural resources and mitigates environmental degradation, which aligns with conservation psychology. Research in conservation psychology has shown that engaging in pro-environmental behaviors can enhance individuals’ ecological vision [41, 42]. By conserving power, individuals demonstrate their commitment to environmental stewardship and develop a deeper understanding of the ecological implications of their behaviors.

Collectively, power conservation in farm tourism settings can significantly enhance the ascription of responsibility and ecological vision. It can also support tourists’ well-being, highlighting the potential of farm tourism as a platform for promoting both sustainability and well-being. Indeed, power conservation may act by fostering a sense of environmental mastery, self-efficacy, and connection to nature, as well as demonstrating a commitment to environmental stewardship and enhancing individuals’ understanding of ecological interconnections. Therefore, the following hypotheses were postulated:

  • H1a: Power conservation significantly impacts tourists’ well-being

  • H1b: Power conservation significantly impacts the ascription of responsibility

  • H1c: Power conservation significantly impacts ecological vision

2.2 Ecologically-aware tourists’ behavior and personal value and well-being

Ecologically-aware tourists’ behavior is a subdomain of pro-environmental behavior, which refers to the actions that tourists take to protect or conserve the natural environment [43]. Ecologically-aware tourists’ behavior can be influenced by various factors, such as environmental knowledge, environmental engagement, environmental stimulus, place attachment, product attachment, and activity attachment [43,44,45]. These factors can affect tourists’ well-being in different ways, such as enhancing their mental and physical health, increasing their life satisfaction and happiness, and fostering their sense of purpose and meaning [44]. Farm tourism poses some challenges for sustainability and well-being, such as increasing the demand for natural resources, generating waste and pollution, disrupting local ecosystems and biodiversity, and creating social conflicts between tourists and hosts [46].

Indeed, tourists’ environmentally responsible behavior and their personal values are significantly influenced by their level of environmental awareness, as revealed by Aman et al. [47] in their study conducted in the tourist hotspot of Kumrat Valley, Pakistan. The study aimed to uncover whether there exists an environmental awareness–behavior gap among tourists, with environmental awareness levels outweighing pro-environmental behavior. Analyzing data from 426 tourists who visited the valley, Aman et al. [47] found that pro-environmental behavior is positively and significantly affected by components such as environmental awareness, environmental concern, and environmental attachment. Notably, environmental attachment was introduced as a moderator between environmental awareness and pro-environmental behavior. Drawing on signaling theory, Su et al. [48] investigated the influence of perceived destination reputation on environmentally responsible behavior (ERB) and subjective well-being (SWB) among tourists, mediated by satisfaction and identification with the destination, respectively. The study found that destination reputation significantly impacts tourists’ satisfaction and identification with the destination. Furthermore, satisfaction and identification with the destination were found to partially mediate the relationship between perceived destination reputation and tourists’ ERB and SWB. These findings underscore the importance of destination reputation in enhancing tourists’ SWB and encouraging their engagement in ERB. Furthermore, Su et al. [49] investigated the impact of ecological presence, a newly proposed sub-dimension of presence in virtual reality tourism (VRT), on tourists’ environmentally responsible behavior (TERB). Through the study, the authors found that ecological presence, characterized by the authenticity and immersion of tourists in virtual ecological environments, significantly enhances biospheric values, environmental self-identity, and personal norms. Moreover, the findings revealed that ecological presence indirectly promotes TERB, primarily through the mediation of enhanced biospheric values and environmental self-identity.

Therefore, it is important to understand how ecologically-aware tourists’ behavior can enhance or hinder the well-being of tourists in farm tourism. Some studies have suggested that ecologically-aware tourists’ behavior can positively affect their well-being by increasing their awareness of environmental issues and problems, stimulating their interest in learning more about farming practices and traditions [45], providing them with opportunities for physical activity and relaxation [44], and creating a sense of connection with nature and local communities [50]. Engaging in ecologically-aware behavior during tourism experiences, such as practicing waste reduction or supporting environmentally-friendly initiatives, provides individuals with a sense of purpose and fulfillment, contributing to their overall well-being [51]. Moreover, such behaviors often result in positive emotional experiences and enhanced satisfaction with the travel experience, further bolstering tourists’ well-being. On the other hand, some studies have indicated that ecologically-aware tourists’ behavior can negatively affect their well-being by causing them stress or anxiety due to environmental uncertainty or risk, reducing their enjoyment or satisfaction due to environmental degradation or disturbance [52], limiting their flexibility or choice due to environmental constraints or regulations [44], and creating a sense of guilt or responsibility due to environmental guilt or obligation [50].

Furthermore, the influence of ecologically-aware behavior extends to shaping an ecological vision, a long-term perspective on environmental conservation [53]. Ecologically-aware tourists often envision a sustainable future, which guides their present actions. They tend to support farm tourism practices that align with this vision, such as organic farming, renewable energy use, and local sourcing [54]. In turn, these behaviors reinforce their personal values, creating a positive feedback loop. The ascription of responsibility leads to more ecologically-aware actions, while an ecological vision encourages long-term commitment to sustainability [55]. By engaging in ecologically-aware behavior, tourists demonstrate a sense of responsibility for environmental issues, as they actively contribute to conservation efforts and minimize their ecological footprint. This behavior reinforces tourists’ perceptions of their role in addressing environmental challenges, leading to a heightened sense of responsibility for the well-being of the environment [56]. However, the relationship between ecologically-aware behavior and personal values is complex and influenced by various factors. For instance, personal experiences, cultural background, and education level can shape how tourists perceive their responsibility and envision ecological sustainability [57].

As a consequence, ecologically-aware tourists’ behavior significantly impacts the ascription of responsibility and ecological vision, and it is a relevant factor for understanding the effect of farm tourism on tourists’ well-being. The following hypotheses were developed based on the above evidence:

  • H2a: Ecologically-aware tourists’ behavior significantly impacts tourists’ well-being

  • H2b: Ecologically-aware tourists’ behavior significantly impacts the ascription of responsibility

  • H2c: Ecologically-aware tourists’ behavior significantly impacts ecological vision

2.3 Ecological waste management and personal value and well-being

Poor waste management practices can lead to environmental degradation, which can negatively affect the health and well-being of tourists. A study on the impact of waste management on tourism sustainability in Labuan Bajo, West Manggarai Regency found that tourism development in the area still requires more intensive intervention in the ecological dimension, and the sustainability status of tourism in terms of environmental management is in reasonably sustainable condition [58]. Applying Norm Activation Theory to tourism, a study developed a conceptual model for both tourists and residents starting from their awareness of the negative environmental consequences of tourism, addressing ascription of responsibility, environmental sensitivity, place attachment, and environmentally responsible behavior [59]. The research showed that developing awareness of the consequences of tourism is important to developing strong responsibility ascription and environmentally responsible behavior [59]. Moreover, recent research by Elnasr et al. [60] delves into the issue of food waste within the hospitality industry, particularly in all-inclusive hotels. Through semi-structured interviews with managers and chefs in Hurghada, Egypt, the study uncovers various drivers of food waste, including guest behavior, operational routines, and employee practices. The findings highlight the need for effective strategies to minimize food waste in all-inclusive hotel settings, emphasizing the importance of addressing guest attitudes and preferences as key contributors to waste generation. This way, ecologically responsible waste management behavior can contribute to the well-being of tourists and the sustainability of tourism destinations [61, 62]. Therefore, collectively, ecological waste management behavior can significantly impact tourists’ well-being.

Concerning the ascription of responsibility, a study on the sustainability of waste management in Uganda found that the Theory of Planned Behavior constructs of attitude, intentions, perceived behavioral control, and subjective norm towards Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) schemes have a significant positive effect on the outcome of sustainable waste management [63]. Another study on selective waste collection in Arad, Romania, found that responsible behavior in terms of waste and its collection is an important factor in the ecological development of a community, and the population’s existing mentalities and perceptions can be used to provide optimal intervention opportunities to increase control for better management of selective collection [64]. These findings suggest that ecologically responsible waste management behavior can shape the ascription of responsibility and influence environmentally responsible actions.

Ecological waste management behavior can also influence ecological vision. Responsible waste management is crucial for environmental sustainability and can shape individuals’ perception of the environment. This was apparent in the study conducted in Arad, Romania [65]. Additionally, understanding the intention-behavior gap in waste management policies is essential. Research on the waste sorting policy in China found that perceived policy effectiveness and actual behavioral control positively affect behavioral intention and pro-environmental behavior, highlighting the influence of waste management practices on individuals’ environmental behavior and vision [66]. Therefore, ecologically responsible waste management behavior can contribute to shaping individuals’ ecological vision and promoting environmental sustainability. As a consequence, the following was hypothesized:

  • H3a: Ecological waste management behavior significantly impacts tourists’ well-being

  • H3b: Ecological waste management behavior significantly impacts the ascription of responsibility

  • H3c: Ecological waste management behavior significantly impacts ecological vision

2.4 Personal value and well-being

Farm tourism can offer various benefits for tourists and host communities, such as enhancing knowledge about agriculture and rural life, promoting sustainable practices and lifestyles, supporting local economy and culture, creating employment opportunities, improving food security and quality, and fostering social interaction and community cohesion [67, 68]. For example, Mathew et al. [62] conducted a comprehensive study to examine the impact of responsible tourism on community well-being in selected destinations in Kerala, India. The authors employed a questionnaire-based survey administered to 493 community-based individuals across different destinations [62]. demonstrated that the various responsibility areas of responsible tourism, such as economic, social, cultural, and environmental responsibilities, play crucial roles in influencing the life satisfaction of the local community. Furthermore, the study identified distinct mechanisms through which these responsibilities contribute to community well-being, including material well-being, community well-being, emotional well-being, and health and safety well-being. These insights underscore the importance of responsible tourism practices in enhancing destination attractiveness and fostering the well-being of local communities, thus contributing to sustainable tourism development [62].

Furthermore, Khairy et al. [69] conducted a comprehensive study to investigate the impact of environmental corporate social responsibility (ECSR) on green perceived value (GPV) and green attitude (GA) within the hospitality and tourism industry. Their research aimed to explore the mediating role of environmental well-being (EWB) in the relationship between ECSR and GA, as well as between ECSR and GPV. To achieve these objectives, Khairy et al. collected and analyzed 910 responses from guests of travel agencies and 5-star hotels in Egypt using partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM). Their research demonstrated positive associations between ECSR and GA, EWB, and GPV, highlighting the importance of environmental responsibility in shaping guests’ attitudes and perceptions of value within the industry. Furthermore, the study identified positive relationships between EWB and GA, as well as between EWB and GPV, indicating the role of environmental well-being in influencing guests’ attitudes and perceived value [69]. Importantly, the authors found that EWB mediated the relationship between ECSR and GA, as well as between ECSR and GPV, underscoring the significance of environmental well-being as a mechanism through which ECSR influences guests’ attitudes and perceptions of value [69].

However, farm tourism also faces some challenges and risks that may affect its sustainability and well-being [70, 71]. Some of these challenges include: environmental degradation due to overexploitation or pollution of natural resources; loss or commodification of cultural heritage; conflicts between conservation and development interests; negative impacts on local communities due to externalization or displacement; lack of adequate infrastructure or services; low quality or safety standards; insufficient regulation or monitoring; inadequate education or awareness among stakeholders [72,73,74]. Therefore, it is important to consider how personal values such as ascription of responsibility and ecological vision can influence tourists’ well-being in farm tourism contexts. For example: tourists who have high levels of ascription of responsibility may be more likely to engage in pro-environmental behaviors such as reducing waste or carbon footprint [75]; supporting local initiatives for conservation or restoration [76]; participating in volunteer activities or donations; respecting local customs or norms; reporting any problems or issues they encounter [62, 76]. Tourists who have high levels of ecological vision may be more likely to enjoy farm tourism experiences that are authentic, meaningful, diverse, respectful, responsible [77]. They may appreciate the beauty and richness of nature, learn about different farming systems or practices, experience different cultures or lifestyles, interact with local people in positive ways and share their knowledge or skills with others [62]. Tourists who have low levels of both ascription of responsibility and ecological vision may be less likely to benefit from farm tourism in terms of well-being. They may not care about the environment or culture; consume excessively without considering the consequences; cause harm or disturbance to natural resources or communities; ignore local rules or regulations; complain frequently about their experiences [62]. Therefore, the following hypotheses were set.

  • H4: Ascription of responsibility significantly impacts tourists’ well-being

  • H5: Ecological vision significantly impacts tourists’ well-being

2.5 Well-being and the attachment theory

Farm tourism, a rapidly growing sector, offers a unique lens to examine the interplay between tourists’ well-being and attachment theory. Specifically, the subdomains of product attachment and place attachment provide valuable insights into this relationship. Tourists’ well-being significantly influences their product attachment. For instance, farm tourists who experience high levels of well-being are more likely to form strong attachments to products associated with their farm tourism experiences [78]. This can include anything from locally sourced foods to handmade crafts. The positive emotions derived from these experiences enhance the perceived value of these products, fostering a sense of attachment [79]. Similarly, place attachment is also influenced by tourists’ well-being. Farm tourism, with its emphasis on nature and sustainability, often leads to increased well-being among tourists [80]. This heightened sense of well-being can foster a deeper connection to the place visited, leading to a stronger place attachment [81]. Tourists who feel a strong sense of well-being are more likely to feel a sense of belonging and identity with the place, further strengthening their place attachment [82].

Furthermore, in the realm of consumer psychology, research has demonstrated that individuals develop emotional connections with products that fulfill their emotional needs or enhance their overall well-being [83]. Positive emotional experiences associated with products can lead to increased product attachment, as individuals form bonds with items that hold personal significance or contribute to their happiness and satisfaction [33]. Moreover, tourists often seek out experiences that evoke positive emotions and enhance their well-being during their travels [84]. Positive emotions associated with these experiences can strengthen tourists’ attachment to specific products encountered during their travels. From another perspective, tourists often seek out destinations that evoke positive emotions and enhance their overall well-being. These destinations may include natural landscapes, cultural heritage sites, or rural retreats, such as those encountered during farm tourism experiences [85]. Positive emotional experiences associated with these destinations can foster a sense of place attachment, as individuals develop emotional bonds with the environment and perceive it as meaningful and significant in their lives. Research has shown that positive experiences in natural or rural settings can enhance individuals’ psychological well-being, including reductions in stress, improved mood, and increased feelings of relaxation and restoration [86,87,88]. These positive emotional states contribute to the formation of place attachment, as individuals associate the destination with positive emotions and personal well-being.

In conclusion, both product and place attachment in the context of farm tourism are significantly influenced by tourists’ well-being. The positive emotions and experiences derived from farm tourism enhance tourists’ attachments to both products and places, contributing to the overall success and sustainability of farm tourism. Based on these observations, the hypotheses below were developed:

  • H6a: Tourists’ well-being significantly impacts product attachment

  • H6b: Tourists’ well-being significantly impacts place attachment

Overall, the study hypotheses were summarized in Fig. 1.

Fig. 1
figure 1

The study hypotheses and relationships in the current study

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3 Materials and methods

3.1 Construct measures

To measure pro-environmental behavior, three subscales were used to assess different domains of environmentally friendly actions. Power conservation was assessed using a 7-item scale examining behaviors to reduce energy use through climate control and lighting practices. A 3-item scale captured ecologically-aware tourist behaviors such as purchasing organic and efficient products. Ecological waste management was measured with a 6-item scale focusing on reuse and recycling behaviors for different materials like plastic, food, paper, and glass. Respondents indicated how frequently they engaged in each behavior on a 5-point Likert scale. Personal values related to the environment were operationalized using two constructs. A 6-item ecological vision scale tapped beliefs about humanity’s relationship with and ability to manage nature. The 5-item ascription of responsibility scale examined opinions on who bears accountability for addressing environmental issues, whether individuals, government, corporations or all groups together. Items were measured on a 5-point Likert agreement scale. Attachment to the farm tourism context was gauged using two dimensions. The 4-item place attachment scale assessed emotional bonding to farm destinations. A 3-item product attachment scale focused on preferences for organic agricultural offerings. Finally, tourist well-being was evaluated using a 7-item scale measuring satisfaction across domains of affect, aspirations, interests and outlook on a 5-point scale (Table 1).

Table 1 The used domains and items in the questionnaire
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3.2 Data collection

Data was collected from tourists visiting farms in Saudi Arabia. An online questionnaire containing the scales described above was distributed to collect data, and a consent was obtained from each participant prior to filling out the online form. A total of 309 completed responses were obtained. In order to ensure a sample representing farm tourists, four criteria were used to select respondents. First, individuals had to be over 18 years old. Second, they needed to have visited a farm tourism destination within the past year. Third, their primary motivation for the visit had to be leisure or recreation rather than work. Fourth, they were required to have directly experienced farm activities and products rather than just viewing the farm setting. The criteria used to select respondents were deliberately chosen to ensure the sample captured tourists who had directly experienced farm tourism activities and environments. Requiring participants to be over 18 aims to obtain viewpoints from fully independent individuals rather than minors whose perspectives may be influenced by others. Setting a cutoff for visiting a farm in the past year aimed to collect reasonably fresh memories. Specifying the visit’s primary purpose as leisure or recreation aimed to exclude those on business trips where farm activities may have been more peripheral. Finally, demanding experience of on-farm activities and products rather than just viewing the setting was important to include people who had real engagements with the farm context and could thus meaningfully evaluate attachments, behaviors, and outcomes related to it. These criteria collectively helped filter the sample to consist of farm tourists who were best positioned to provide meaningful responses regarding the phenomena under investigation, thereby strengthening the study’s validity and ability to draw conclusions.

To reach this targeted sample, tourism firm specializing in agri-tourism operations across Saudi Arabia was approached. The firm distributed the questionnaire link to their past customers through email lists. The survey was also promoted through the firm’s social media channels. This approach allowed us to tap into a pool of directly relevant participants who had participated in farm visits facilitated by the firm. Collecting data online provided flexibility to respondents in terms of time and location of participation. It also yielded a sizable sample in a relatively short time period of 4 weeks to meet the target response rate. The survey administration was closely monitored. Daily response tallies were reviewed, and follow-up messages were sent through the partner firm’s communication platforms to encourage further participation. Regular checks were performed to ensure the selection criteria were met and problematic or incomplete responses were deleted from the final dataset. This rigorous process resulted in a high-quality dataset of 309 valid responses that met the need for a sample representing Saudi farm tourists. The relatively large dataset size also enhanced the analysis capabilities and statistical power.

3.3 Statistical analysis

Data analysis was implemented using RStudio (R version 4.3.0). Categorical data were summarized through the presentation of frequencies and percentages. The investigative constructs in this study were modeled employing bootstrapped partial least squares structural equation modeling. The evaluation of internal consistency reliability involved the computation of Cronbach’s alpha coefficients. To address the assumption of equal indicator loadings inherent in Cronbach’s alpha, rhoC values were calculated as an indicator of composite reliability, following the approach suggested by Jöreskog [89]. Furthermore, the more conservative measure of internal consistency, rhoA, was employed based on the recommendation of Dijkstra and Henseler [90]. Convergent validity was assessed using the Average Variance Extracted (AVE) to ascertain the degree to which each domain can collectively explain the observed variances in the indicators [91]. Discriminant validity was appraised by comparing the square roots of the AVE with the correlations between different constructs and utilizing the heterotrait–monotrait ratio (HTMT) of correlations, as outlined by Henseler, Ringle, and Sarstedt [92]. The bootstrapped structural model was executed employing a 1000-bootstrap method, following the procedure outlined by Streukens and Leroi-Werelds [93]. Results were presented in terms of beta coefficients, accompanied by their corresponding 95% confidence intervals (95% CIs). Statistical significance was denoted by a p-value of 0.05.

4 Results

4.1 Demographic characteristics

The current study included data of 309 farm tourists. The majority of them were females (74.8%) and aged 18 to 24 years (60.8%). Furthermore, almost three-quarters of tourists used to travel with a friend (75.8%), and 66.0% of the respondents had visited Al-Hasa frequently (three times or more, Table 2).

Table 2 Demographic characteristics of tourists
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4.2 Convergent validity and construct reliability

Within the framework of the bootstrapped model, results revealed that ten items manifested statistically insignificant loadings in relation to their corresponding constructs. These items were distributed across distinct domains, specifically three items in the power conservation subscale (Env_pw_4, Env_pw_5 and Env_pw_6), four items in the ecological waste management subscale (Env_Wast_1, Env_Wast_2, Env_Wast_3 and Env_Wast_6), one item in the ecological vision subscale (Val_Vis_2) and two items in the ascription of responsibility subscale (Val_Ascr_1 and Val_Ascr_4). Subsequent to this identification, the final bootstrapped model exhibited commendable levels of reliability, as substantiated by the findings presented in Table 3. The mean bootstrap factor loadings for all items achieved statistical significance, surpassing the predefined threshold of 0.50. Moreover, the rhoC and rhoA values exceeded the accepted threshold of 0.70 [89, 90]. Importantly, the Cronbach’s alpha coefficients, ranged from 0.839 to 0.937. and the AVE values spanned from 0.526 to 0.870. This breadth indicates that each respective domain accounted for no less than 52.6% of the observed variance in the indicators comprising that particular domain [91] (Table 3).

Table 3 Convergent validity and construct reliability
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4.3 Discriminant validity

In the assessment of discriminant validity, an examination involved a comparison between the square roots of the AVE and the shared variance observed among different constructs, as indicated by inter-domain correlations. As delineated in Table 4, it was consistently observed that the square roots of the AVE exceeded the correlations across various domains. Additionally, the results provided in Table 5, encompassing bootstrapped heterotrait-monotrait ratio (HTMT) values and their corresponding 95% confidence intervals (CIs), remained below the established threshold of 1. This outcome serves to reinforce the confirmation of discriminant validity [92] (Table 3).

Table 4 Discriminant validity
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Table 5 Results of the bootstrapped HTMT
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The diagonal of the matrix contains the square roots of Average Variance Extracted (AVE), while the lower triangular section comprises the inter-domain correlations.

4.4 Structural model

The results of the statistical analyses reveal several significant relationships among the studied variables. Power conservation practices among farm tourists in Al-Hasa significantly contribute to a stronger sense of responsibility towards environmental protection (t = 2.036, beta = 0.300, 95%CI 0.087 to 0.504, p = 0.021). Moreover, engagement in ecologically aware tourist behavior was an antecedent predictor of a more profound ecological vision (t = 5.925, beta = 0.619, 95%CI 0.406 to 0.824, p < 0.001). No other significant predictors were noted in the structural model (Table 6). Furthermore, the mediation analysis revealed no significant mediators on well-being (Table 7).

Table 6 Results of the structural model
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Table 7 Results of mediation analysis for distinct paths on well-being
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5 Discussion and conclusion

5.1 Discussion of the findings

In light of the study’s overarching goal to investigate the nexus of environmental behavior, personal values, and tourist outcomes in the context of farm tourism, the obtained results shed insightful light on the dynamics between power conservation practices and tourists’ sense of responsibility toward environmental protection. Notably, the study uncovers a significant and positive relationship, revealing that farm tourists in Al-Hasa who engage in power conservation contribute significantly to fostering a heightened sense of responsibility for environmental preservation. This finding underscores the pivotal role of individual behaviors in influencing visitors’ ecological consciousness and aligns with the broader discourse on sustainable tourism. Moreover, the implications extend beyond mere energy conservation, emphasizing the potential for such practices to instill a deeper commitment to environmental stewardship among farm tourists. This result holds particular relevance for farm tourism operators seeking to cultivate a sense of responsibility and environmental mindfulness among visitors, providing a nuanced understanding of the positive impact that power conservation initiatives can have on shaping tourists’ attitudes toward ecological protection.

Indeed, the positive relationship between power conservation practices and a stronger sense of responsibility towards environmental protection is significant because it can lead to more sustainable and responsible use of natural resources. Actually, the aforementioned relationship is significant because it can lead to more sustainable and responsible use of natural resources. This finding aligns with research by Yue et al. [94], who investigated the impact of consumer environmental responsibility on green consumption behavior in China. The study revealed that environmental responsibility positively promotes environmental concern and enhances green consumption. Specifically, environmental responsibility was found to have a positive impact on environmental concern, which in turn positively affects green consumption intention, thus partially mediating the relationship between environmental responsibility and green consumption intention [94]. Moreover, the study identified price sensitivity as a moderator in this relationship, indicating its negative moderation role [94]. These findings emphasize the importance of fostering environmental responsibility among consumers to encourage environmentally conscious behavior, such as power conservation practices, which ultimately contributes to sustainable resource management and environmental protection efforts. Moreover, the positive relationship between power conservation practices and a stronger sense of responsibility towards environmental protection underscores the potential for fostering similar behaviors in other resource conservation domains. Long et al. [95] investigated the relationship between environmental responsibility and public water-saving behavior, shedding light on the broader implications of responsible environmental attitudes on resource conservation practices. The study found that environmental responsibility enhances positive emotions related to water saving, thereby positively influencing residents’ water-saving behavior. This finding suggests that promoting environmental responsibility can not only cultivate positive emotions but also encourage water-saving practices among individuals. Furthermore, the study revealed that publicity plays a significant moderating role in the relationship between positive emotion and water-saving behavior, indicating the importance of awareness campaigns in promoting sustainable water use. These insights contribute to the understanding of the psychological mechanisms driving resource conservation behaviors and underscore the importance of fostering environmental responsibility to build a more sustainable society.

As shown in the case of the Topaz Solar Farms project in California, responsible land use practices can support biodiversity and protect wildlife habitats [96]. However, the unequal distribution of natural resources and political power can hinder environmental protection efforts, as seen in Nicaragua [97]. The economic valuation of nature has been proposed as a way to make the ecological crisis more tangible and foster a shared vision of nature as capital amenable to management and protection [98]. The development of natural resources law in Australia has increasingly favored environmental protection over human development [99]. From another viewpoint, the significance of the positive relationship between power conservation practices and a stronger sense of responsibility towards environmental protection is that they can both contribute to achieving environmental sustainability. By conserving power and reducing environmental impact, individuals can help to mitigate climate change, conserve biodiversity, prevent pollution, and enhance human health [100].

In general, the positive relationship between power conservation practices and a stronger sense of responsibility towards environmental protection can be explained by several factors. First, power conservation practices can enhance the quality of life and well-being of both tourists and farmers by providing them with clean air, water, food security [4, 21], health benefits [101], income opportunities, social interactions [101], cultural learning, and recreational enjoyment. Second, power conservation practices can foster a sense of stewardship among tourists and farmers by making them aware of their roles and impacts on the environment, motivating them to take action to protect it, empowering them to make informed decisions about their travel choices, involving them in decision-making processes about farm management, and rewarding them for their contributions to environmental sustainability [101]. Third, power conservation practices can create a win–win situation for both tourists and farmers by generating economic benefits from renewable energy sources or energy-efficient technologies while reducing environmental costs from fossil fuels or wasteful energy use [4, 21]. Overall, a stronger sense of responsibility towards environmental protection can lead to more sustainable and equitable use of natural resources. In particular, consumers behavior may change towards more pro-environmental when they encounter degradation of formerly prosperous sights [102].

In the current study, there was a positive relationship between ecologically aware tourist behavior and ecological vision in the context of farm tourism. This finding resonates with the broader trends identified in the field of ecotourism research. Xu et al. [103] conducted a scientometric review of global research trends in ecotourism and sustainable development, highlighting the rapid development and interdisciplinary nature of the field. The analysis [103] revealed that ecotourism research has evolved through different phases, from addressing human disturbance to emphasizing ecosystem services and eventually focusing on sustainable development. This progression aligns with the increasing emphasis on environmental conservation and sustainability within the tourism industry, including farm tourism. As ecotourism continues to gain popularity, it is essential to consider its implications for promoting ecological awareness and fostering sustainable practices among tourists, which are crucial for the long-term viability of farm tourism destinations.

The finding presented in the current paper is also consistent with recent research trends in ecotourism, as highlighted by Rafiq et al. [104]. The study examines the influence of personality traits, such as extraversion and neuroticism, on tourists’ intentions to visit ecotourism sites, within the framework of the theory of planned behavior. The results indicate that extroverts are more likely to express intentions to visit ecotourism sites, while neurotic tourists’ intentions can be influenced by their environmental concerns. This suggests that tourists with different personality traits may respond differently to ecotourism initiatives, underscoring the importance of tailored communication strategies to enhance awareness and promote responsible behavior among diverse tourist segments. As farm tourism destinations increasingly embrace ecotourism principles, understanding the interplay between tourists’ traits, environmental concerns, and behavioral intentions becomes essential for effective destination management and sustainability efforts.

The relationship between ecologically aware tourist behavior and ecological vision can be interpreted in several ways. Ecologically aware tourists are more likely to engage in sustainable practices during their visit to farms, such as conserving water, reducing waste, and promoting energy efficiency. This behavior can help minimize the environmental impact of farm tourism and contribute to the long-term sustainability of the industry [105]. Additionally, ecologically aware tourists can help raise awareness about environmental issues and the importance of sustainable practices among local communities and fellow tourists. This can lead to the adoption of more environmentally friendly practices by other visitors and contribute to the overall improvement of the farm tourism experience [106]. The relationship between tourist behavior and ecological vision can also be viewed in supporting eco-friendly initiatives. Tourists who are aware of the environmental impact of their actions are more likely to support eco-friendly initiatives, such as recycling programs, energy-saving measures, and conservation efforts. This support can help drive the implementation of sustainable practices in farm tourism and contribute to the long-term success of the industry [105]. Furthermore, as social media and other platforms become more prevalent in travel decision-making, ecologically aware tourists can share their experiences and knowledge with others, influencing the destination choices of fellow travelers. This can help promote sustainable tourism practices and contribute to the growth of the farm tourism industry [107]. Based on the above observations, the positive relationship between ecologically aware tourist behavior and ecological vision in the context of farm tourism can lead to the adoption of sustainable practices, raising awareness about environmental issues, supporting eco-friendly initiatives, and influencing travel choices. This, in turn, can contribute to the long-term sustainability and success of the farm tourism industry.

The study proposed several hypotheses regarding the relationships between environmental behaviors, personal values, and tourist outcomes in farm tourism settings. However, the data did not support some of these hypotheses, indicating a more complex interplay of factors than initially anticipated. Firstly, the hypotheses that power conservation practices would positively impact ecological vision and well-being were not supported. This may be due to the context-specific nature of farm tourism where immediate, tangible benefits of power conservation might not directly translate into broader ecological vision or enhanced well-being. Previous research has shown that while energy conservation can foster a sense of environmental responsibility, its impact on broader ecological perspectives and personal well-being can be moderated by individual values and local environmental contexts [108]. Additionally, the study found no significant impact of ecologically-aware tourist behavior on ascription of responsibility and well-being. This suggests that while tourists may engage in environmentally responsible behaviors, these actions do not necessarily translate into a deeper sense of responsibility or improved well-being. This aligns with findings by Whitmarsh and O’Neill [109], who observed that pro-environmental behaviors are often driven by social norms and external incentives rather than intrinsic values or self-perceived responsibility. Furthermore, hypotheses regarding the impact of ecological waste management on ecological vision, ascription of responsibility, and well-being were also rejected. This could be attributed to the fact that waste management practices, while critical, might not be as visibly impactful or personally rewarding to tourists in the short term, thereby limiting their influence on broader ecological perspectives or personal well-being [110].

The study also found no significant relationships between ecological vision or ascription of responsibility and well-being. This suggests that broader environmental values and a sense of responsibility might not directly influence tourists’ personal well-being in the context of farm tourism. This is consistent with findings by Hinds and Sparks [111], who noted that environmental identity and pro-environmental attitudes do not always correlate with higher levels of personal well-being. Lastly, the lack of significant relationships between well-being and both place attachment and product attachment indicate that the well-being benefits derived from farm tourism experiences may not necessarily enhance tourists’ emotional attachment to the place or the products offered. This aligns with findings from Prayag and Ryan [112], who highlighted that while well-being can enhance overall satisfaction, it does not always translate into stronger attachment unless the experiences are deeply meaningful or personally transformative. In summary, the rejection of these hypotheses underscores the complexity of the relationships between environmental behavior, personal values, and tourist outcomes. It highlights the need for further research to explore these dynamics in greater depth, considering individual differences and contextual factors that may influence these relationships.

Moreover, the mediation analysis, aimed at elucidating the underlying mechanisms between environmental behavior factors and well-being, yielded noteworthy insights. Contrary to expectations, the results reveal an absence of significant mediators on well-being in the context of farm tourism in Al-Hasa. While power conservation practices and ecologically aware behavior were individually linked to heightened responsibility and a profound ecological vision, respectively, these personal values did not appear to play a mediating role in influencing tourists’ well-being. This unexpected outcome prompts a deeper exploration into the intricate interplay between environmental behavior, personal values, and the psychological well-being of farm tourists. Potential explanations may include the nuanced nature of well-being, influenced by multifaceted factors beyond the direct impact of environmental practices. Additionally, the unique cultural and contextual aspects of Al-Hasa may contribute to the divergence from established mediation patterns observed in other settings. Al-Hasa is home to several UNESCO World Heritage sites, including the Al-Ahsa Oasis, which is the largest oasis in the world and has been inhabited for over 7000 years. The region is also known for its traditional handicrafts, such as pottery and weaving, and its unique cuisine, which includes dishes like “qursan,” a type of bread made from dates. Additionally, Al-Hasa has a rich Islamic heritage, with several historic mosques and religious sites, including the Al-Qarah Mountain and the Al-Mabarrat Mosque [113, 114]. These cultural and historical assets make Al-Hasa a unique destination for tourists interested in exploring Saudi Arabia’s rich cultural heritage. Therefore, the above-mentioned results emphasize the complexity of the relationships under investigation and underscores the need for nuanced considerations when formulating interventions to enhance well-being through sustainable practices in farm tourism.

5.2 Study limitations

Despite the valuable insights garnered from this study, several limitations should be acknowledged, primarily stemming from the research design and context. First and foremost, the reliance on a structured questionnaire as the primary data collection method introduces the potential for social desirability bias and response set biases, wherein participants may provide socially acceptable or uniform responses, impacting the accuracy and depth of the data. Additionally, the study focused exclusively on farm tourists in the Al-Hasa region of Saudi Arabia, limiting the generalizability of findings to a broader population. The contextual specificity of the region may introduce cultural nuances that could influence participant responses and behaviors in ways not captured by the current study. Furthermore, the cross-sectional nature of the research design restricts the ability to establish causal relationships between variables, and longitudinal studies would be necessary to provide a more comprehensive understanding of the dynamic interactions over time. Lastly, the study did not explore potential moderating variables that could influence the relationships under investigation, leaving avenues for future research to delve into additional contextual and individual factors that may shape the observed patterns. Despite these limitations, the study contributes valuable insights to the understanding of environmental behavior and personal values in the context of farm tourism, paving the way for further exploration and refinement of the proposed model.

5.3 Conclusion and future implications

Sustainable tourism plays a pivotal role in safeguarding the environment and promoting land preservation. Agritourism, through its adoption of environmentally friendly practices such as renewable energy utilization, waste composting, and promotion of zero-kilometer organic products, activates a sustainability chain that preserves natural resources while fostering rural tourism characterized by respect for local landscapes and traditions. Traditional farming techniques employed by agritourism also provide opportunities for sustainable education, raising environmental awareness among visitors through workshops and experiential activities that emphasize biodiversity conservation and energy reduction.

5.3.1 Theoretical implications

The study contributes to the burgeoning field of sustainable tourism by investigating the intricate connections between environmental behavior, personal values, and tourist outcomes within the context of farm tourism in Al-Hasa, Saudi Arabia. Findings suggest that power conservation practices significantly influence tourists’ sense of responsibility for environmental protection, highlighting the potential of individual behaviors to shape ecological consciousness. Moreover, the identification of ecologically aware behavior as a predictor of profound ecological vision adds nuance to the understanding of how specific actions shape tourists’ broader sustainability perspectives. However, the complex relationship between environmental behavior and well-being, as evidenced by the absence of significant mediation effects, prompts further exploration into the diverse factors influencing the interplay between environmental behavior and well-being in farm tourism, acknowledging the limitations inherent in the research design and regional focus.

5.3.2 Practical implications

The current study provides actionable recommendations for farm tourism operators to promote sustainable practices and enhance visitor experiences. Firstly, operators can implement tailored energy conservation initiatives, such as investing in energy-efficient appliances and promoting energy-saving behaviors among staff and guests. By reducing energy consumption, operators not only lower operational costs but also demonstrate their commitment to environmental sustainability. Additionally, operators should design experiential activities that immerse visitors in the natural environment, such as guided nature walks and organic farming workshops. By providing hands-on experiences, operators can foster a deeper connection with nature and promote sustainable behaviors among guests. Furthermore, integrating well-being into sustainability programs is crucial. Operators should prioritize holistic well-being experiences, such as nature-based therapy sessions and wellness retreats, to enhance guest satisfaction and promote sustainable tourism practices. Transparent communication of environmental initiatives is also essential. By highlighting their sustainability efforts through educational materials and interactive exhibits, operators can engage visitors in dialogue and raise awareness about environmental conservation. Lastly, community collaboration and stakeholder engagement are key. Operators should collaborate with local businesses and government agencies to support conservation projects and economic development initiatives, building strong community ties and promoting responsible tourism practices. By implementing these recommendations, farm tourism operators can enhance their sustainability efforts and contribute to the long-term preservation of natural resources and local communities.