Introduction

Education is one of the most crucial factors for development in every aspect. Without significant investments in human capital, no country can achieve long-term economic development (Ozturk 2008). Education can be categorized into two forms: grammar-based education (literacy) and technical and vocational education (TVET). In the twenty-first century, TVET has been recognized as a vital necessity for business, industry, and the workplace. Consequently, it has become a global paradigm shift (Indarta et al. 2021). TVET is an educational program that places a strong emphasis on learning through formal and informal training, aiming to create a skilled workforce (Boeren et al. 2017; Nooruddin 2017). According to UNESCO (2016), TVET education encompasses general education, technology, and science-related studies with a strong connection to the acquisition of practical skills, attitudes, understanding, and knowledge relevant to various sectors of life and the economy. The contribution of TVET to shaping development on a global, regional, and national scale cannot be overstated. Bhurtel (2015) pointed out that investment in TVET has contributed significantly to the socioeconomic development of many nations. It is considered essential for promoting employment, self-employment, and poverty reduction. McGrath et al. (2018) argue that the Agenda 2030 and its Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) prioritize TVET as a key means to alleviate poverty and unemployment. TVET is a crucial component of SDG 4, which focuses on education, and it is widely recognized that it plays a pivotal role in driving global transformation. Supporting young people in acquiring professional skills through TVET programmes is an important component of development initiatives in many nations. Against this backdrop, the African Union (AU) has created a continental strategy through the African Union Commission (AUC) to resuscitate TVET in Africa through the implementation of the Plan of Action (Africa Union 2018).

In Ghana, since the colonial era, successive governments have been committed to making TVET (Technical and Vocational Education and Training) part of Ghana’s educational system. The 1992 Constitution of Ghana includes technical and vocational education in its definition of secondary education. The constitution further states that technical and vocational education should be universally accessible and progressively free (The Constitution of Ghana, 1992, Act. 25). The aim of focusing on TVET has been to equip Ghanaian youth with technical and vocational skills, such as catering, needlework, carpentry, masonry, blacksmithing, and other skills, to enable them to become skilled craftsmen and valuable citizens (Dasmani 2011).

To give practical meaning to the above constitutional provision and improve the image of TVET in Ghana, the Council for Technical and Vocational Education and Training (COTVET) was established in 2006. COTVET’s mandate includes providing infrastructure, training teachers, conducting research, and promoting the global agenda to enhance the subsector (COTVET handbook, 2016). Over the years, many scholars have examined COTVET’s role in promoting TVET in Ghana. Some studies (e.g. Gondwe and Walenkamp 2011; Yangben and Seniwoliba 2014) have highlighted general issues that affect TVET education, such as insufficient funding, inadequate infrastructure, and a lack of qualified staff. Other studies (Ansah and Kissi 2013; Okae-Adjei 2017) have explored public perceptions of Technical and Vocational Education in Ghana, but these studies focused only on the tertiary level. Some of their findings include: TVET is perceived as providing students with limited managerial skills, requiring significant financial investment, and being viewed negatively by employers at the Polytechnic level as a program for academically weak students. Employers perceive TVET graduates as unprepared to be resourceful and self-reliant, lacking essential communication skills, as well as problem-solving and critical thinking abilities.

The Ghanaian government has recently prioritized equipping TVET institutions with the necessary infrastructure, funding, tools, policy guidance, and teacher training to make them more appealing and conducive places for youth to study, and to bridge the unemployment gap (Council for Technical and Vocational Education (COTVET) 2020). However, the subsector continues to experience low enrolment, as many parents prefer their children, and even students themselves, to attend grammar-based schools. Findings from the Ghana Education Strategy Plan 2018–2030 revealed that only 2.1% of students selected TVET (Ghana Ministry of Education 2018). This suggests that many in society fail to recognize the importance of and demand for TVET in the global economy. Therefore, this study aims to explore public knowledge of TVET and the reasons behind the public’s lack of enrolment in the TVET subsector in Ghana.

Literature review

Historical background of TVET

TVET had its link to the industrialization revolution in the early days in Europe and North America as a result of the deficiency of skilled manpower gap in the industries. The concept was to provide technical manpower to operate in industries (Tikly 2013). As it has been indicated by Cavanagh et al. (2013), TVET was to serve two urgent needs. It was to give short periods of training to young and old to work and as long-term training for people as a permanent income generation source. It has been pointed out that just after World War II, TVET was recognized as part of the convention of human capital development approaches and backed by international agencies like the World Bank and others (Allais and Wedekind 2020). Over the past years, many names have been used to qualify some components of TVET. Some of them were apprenticeship training, vocational education, technical education, technical-vocational education (TVE), occupational education (OE), vocational education and training (VET), career and technical education (CTE), workforce education (WE), workplace education (WE), continued vocational education and training (CVET), Professional and Vocational Education (PVE) etc. (Agrawal 2013). By consensus in 1999 in Seoul, South Korea, all the above components were fused into the name Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET). This was done with the mindset to promote “Education for All” (EFA) and “Education for Sustainable Development” (ESD) and as a way of strengthening and updating critical points to meeting the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) (Joshi and Yadav 2016).

In recent years, the concept of “work-based learning” has garnered increased interest in European policy debates. This is because structured vocational education and training (TVET) programs that incorporate extended periods of practical learning within businesses have shown effectiveness in integrating young people into the labour market, as stated by the European Commission (2013). From a socio-economic and labour market perspective, TVET is considered a pathway to careers, thus supporting the replication of economic activity fields in society. It also pertains to the skills, competencies, and attitudes required by businesses and their job processes. TVET allows employees to meet their employer’s needs while also enabling them to acquire expertise, with workplaces serving as “training slots.” Consequently, companies cater to both the demand and supply sides of the skills market (Green 2013).

Regarding the transition from school to the workplace and overall socioeconomic categorization, the position of TVET and the range of approaches encompassed by the term vary. Individuals enrolled in specific forms of TVET, at particular stages in their life course, may have either limited or promising job prospects compared to individuals with a similar duration of general schooling. Their situation may or may not be better than that of individuals with no education after compulsory schooling (Njenga 2020).

Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET), According to Boateng (2012); “Technical and Vocational education refers to the educational processes that involve the study of technologies and related sciences and the acquisition of practical skills and knowledge aimed at discovering and developing the individual for employment in various sectors of economic and social life” (p 108). Also, according to United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) 2016, p. 25); “…educational programmes that are designed for learners to acquire the knowledge, skills, and competencies specific for a particular occupation or trade or class of occupations or trades. Such programmes may have work-based components (e.g., apprenticeships). Successful completion of such programmes leads to labour-market relevant vocational qualifications which are acknowledged as occupationally oriented by the relevant national authorities and/or the labour market.”

TVET, in its widest sense, encompasses both formal and informal technical education, vocational education, technical programmes, on-the-job training, and apprenticeship training (Gyimah 2020). It has the potential to make individuals or groups of people self-dependent after acquiring the knowledge and skills. The interest of TVET is to make individuals available for specific work and can become an avenue to reduce unemployment and other verses in the country.

Purpose of technical and vocational education

Globally, Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) has been established with a purpose. As it has been stated by Ansah and Kissi (2013), the; motives behind TVET is to boost people to have technical know-how which focuses on the socioeconomic and industrial development of any country. The focus of equipping the people is to make them self-employed. It has been argued that TVET is only meant for youth preparation to acquire knowledge and skills that can make them potential enough in societies to live a meaningful life (Ajufo 2013). TVET is a specialised education that is intended to prepare people by developing their skills and knowledge, human strengths, cognitive understanding, attitudes, and behavioural patterns in the ability to properly prepare learners for the future of employment or to place them basically for self-employment after graduation (Duhu and Mbaga 2016). TVET was identified as one of the crucial disciplines when it comes to shaping development in the global economy (Gyimah 2020). According to David (2015), a country cannot separate its economic development from Technical and Vocational Education Training and therefore there have been a lot of adjustments in many countries of their TVET system to reflect on socio-economic development to create decent jobs. For instance, it is argued that TVET provides the opportunity for obtaining existing employable skills in the working environment. Skilled employees are highly needed in African countries’ economy especially the hands-on skills in 38 subdivisions of the economy such as the building and construction industry, power and energy plants, water distribution and sanitation systems and large public works (Afeti 2017).

According to Palmer (2020), both developed and developing countries have identified unemployment as a fundamental hindrance to their economy and the social life of their citizenry. The rate of unemployment among youth across the globe calls for action to intensify the concern for Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) (Maclean and Pavlova 2013; UNESCO/UNEVOC 2013; World Bank 2013; Palgrave Macmillan 2016; Kerre 2017). It is revealed that worldwide, youth unemployment has something to do with “skills mismatched” as a result of education that is acquired purely on theoretical base which does not meet the technical and vocational requirements of employers (Biavaschi et al. 2013; UNESCO/UNEVOC 2013).

TVET in Ghana and policy framework

In the 1830s, the activities of missionaries on the Gold Coast presented the country with TVET education (Amedorme and Fiagbe 2013). Children were given training in the area of blacksmithing, masonry and carpentry in the missionary schools. Between 1914 and 1927, the then Governor Sir Gordon Guggisberg strengthened the education system and demanded for the provision of literacy inclusion of TVET for the citizenry to equip them with skills and shape their behaviour (Aboagye 2021). According to Ansah and Kissi (2013), the Ghanaian government recognises the role of TVET in industrialization and thus emphasises TVET in the Ghana Poverty Reduction Strategic Plan (GPRS). The Ghana Vision 2020’s basic identification and ideology is to adjust TVET with national dreams and ambitions, as well as local and global needs. TVET was made part of the education system which cut across from primary to tertiary both in public and private institutions. The practice of TVET in Ghana comes in two-fold—formal and informal. The formal TVET takes place in the classroom setting and comes with certification at the end of completion while the informal TVET uses the apprenticeship approach such as job training and skills activities and that does not come with a formal certificate (Aryeetey et al. 2011; Gondwe and Walenkamp 2011). The importance of technical and vocational education and training (TVET) on the international and national policy agenda keeps rising (Marope et al. 2015).

Tracing from the 2003–2015, Education Strategic Plan (ESP), the strategic plan came out with two main volumes. The first aspect focuses on the policies, targets and strategies and the second aspect considers the work programme of the strategic plan (Nkrumah and Sinha 2020). In the strategic plan, ten key policy goals were outlined which came under four group focus areas “Equitable Access to Education, Quality of Education, Educational Management and Science and Technology (Nkrumah and Sinha 2020). Regarding TVET, the Plan sought to provide “extension of opportunities for young people, including out-of-school children, dropouts and ‘normal’ school leavers to engage in technical and vocational opportunities” the plan aimed to “ensure relevant education and training for employability and allow for diversification of the technical and vocational curriculum (e.g. to include agriculture and business studies) (Nkrumah and Sinha 2020). In 2010, the Education Strategic Plan adopted the existing one and extended from 2010 to 2020 (Amankwah-Amoah and Sarpong 2016). TVET subsector has been backed by law in their operation in Ghana; the National Vocational Training Institute (NVTI) Act of 1970; the National Board for Professional and Technician Examinations (NABPTEX) Act, 1994 (Act 492), the Children’s Act, 1998, the Council for Technical and Vocational Education and Training (COTVET) Act, 2006 (Act 718), and the Polytechnic Act, 2007 (Act 745) (Ansah and Kissi 2013).

According to Darvas and Palmer (2014), in 2007 there were education reforms that made TVET one of the priorities in Ghana. The purpose of the reforms aimed at making TVET a priority for students to gain hands-on skills for the job market through the support of public and private sector agencies. It was pointed out that, an education bill was introduced which opened up new structures and institutional roles and responsibilities to improve education. The policy was initiated to attract both small-scale and large-scale industries to participate in TVET. In 2006, the Ghanaian Parliament passed the TVET Policy Act (Act 718) authorising the establishment of the Council for Technical and Vocational Education and Training (COTVET) with the mandate of developing national policies on skill development at the pre-tertiary and tertiary levels of education to cover formal and inform segments of the economy; it will comprise coordinating, harmonizing and supervision for both private and public TVET activities, ensure quality and equity in accessing TVET; promotes cooperation with international agencies and development partners (Pongo and Obinnim (2015). COTVET and its allied agencies, such as the National Vocational Training Institute (NVTI), and other stakeholders, such as the Opportunity Industrialisation Centre (OIC) and Integrated Community Centre for Employable Skills (ICCES), should work together more effectively to reform the TVET sector (Darvas and Palmer 2014). “The new radical reform introduces Competent Base Training (CBT) as a mode of TVET delivery in Ghana,” Anane (2013, pp. 117–127) noted. In partnership with leading employers, COTVET’s CBT programme is being developed as a new outcome-based qualification that is both exciting and innovative. Individuals who complete this new programme will be prepared for self-employment as well as the type of workers the industry needs.

Boahin and Hofman (2014), point out that TVET in Ghana must be delivered in a high-quality manner for it to contribute to the country’s economic and social development. To achieve COTVET’s vision of harmonising and institutionalising a quality CBT-TVET system in Ghana, it has established three standing committees to develop a TVET qualification framework, determine training standards and competencies, and provide registration and accreditation. National TVET Qualification Committee (NTVETQC), Training Quality Assurance Committee (TQAC), and Industrial Training Advisory Committee (ITAC) are three of the committees (ITAC). COTVET has organised several training and workshop sessions to enable the standing committees and board members to prepare plans for the full transition to CBT-TVET shortly. The TQAC has finalised its guidelines for registering and accrediting pilot institutions, as well as for TVET providers who will be implementing CBT in the future. Also, the NTVETQC has completed some documents that serve as guidelines for awarding bodies. For TVET funding sustainability, a Skill Development Fund (SDF) has also been established.

Again, COTVET also designs a strategic Plan for TVET transformation 2018–2022. This strategic plan sought to; advance equitable access for all in TVET; advance quality in learning and teaching at all levels and delivery of the service in TVET should be attained and managed properly. Under this strategic government has established competency-based training which has given 146 TVET institutions training; there has been retooling of schools, and offices across Ghana including classroom blocks; over 13,000 individuals have been given free apprenticeship training; a policy on apprenticeship has been drafted; there have been TVET ambassadors put in place for the rebranding of the sub-sector; in other to avoid skill, the COTVET conducted a skills gap analysis to identify the need of the sector for the benefit of the economy; hundred (100) JHS schools have been put on the piloting of TVET Career Guidance and Counselling to achieve self-actualization with a strong motive of creating awareness and providing information about the prospect of TVET. It has stated that two hundred (200) million dollars have been approved by the Cabinet and parliament for creating jobs and skill development across the country from 2021 (Council for Technical and Vocational Education (COTVET) 2020).

Furthermore, in the current Education Strategic Plan (ESP) 2018–2030 due to the unconducive learning environment and poor infrastructure, some of the students turn to withdraw after a few days on admission. Some of the classrooms are just pavilions surrounded by bushes, others are without windows and doors, and furniture is not in usable shape, paying attention to the senior secondary level by allowing students to either pursue technical and vocational or academic track in senior high school level. The document emphasizes TVET with the strategic goal of strengthening competency-based skills development in TVET to reflect the needs of the economy of Ghana. The strategic plan has identified access as a key component of the TVET reform to address the limited accessibility challenges. For instance, in 2016/2017 there were only 120 public institutions and private institutions kept declining in number therefore TVET subsector retooled and refurbished the existing facilities and built 20 model TVET institutions in the space of 10 years across the country. The document sought to address poor coordination and therefore all TVET activities that fall under 15 ministries would be considered under the Ministry of Education in the new TVET policy of the National TVET Qualifications Framework under the supervision of COTVET. It emphasises the restructuring of the TVET curriculum and creates avenues to train more teachers (Ghana Ministry of Education 2018).

Impediment of TVET promotion

TVET across the globe point out its significance to socio-economic but challenges have been the obstacle to that effect. Many scholars over the years have examined the council’s mandate for promoting TVET Ghana. Some findings have indicated that Ghana has myriads of challenges associated with TVET. For instance, most of these studies (e.g. Gondwe and Walenkamp 2011; Yangben and Seniwoliba 2014) have focused on general issues that affect TVET education such as poor funding, poor infrastructure, and low capacity of staff among others. Despite the relevance of e-learning in the teaching and learning of VTE in Nigeria, according to Dumbiri and Nwadiani’s (2020) findings on the challenges facing the application of e-learning facilities, teachers are not utilizing it. This is primarily because there aren’t any e-learning facilities or the available facilities are inadequate. In addition, stakeholders aren’t creating an environment that will allow it to flourish. According to a study by Abdul-Aziz et al. (2020) aimed at identifying the pull and push factors affecting student enrolment in the TVET program at community colleges in Malaysia, both push and pull factors significantly affect student enrolment in TVET institutions. The study identified career prospects as the main pull factor and students’ interests as the main push factors. High levels of student attrition that prevent TVET Colleges from accomplishing its objectives are the principal difficulties faced by TVET Colleges and the Department of Higher Education and Training in general in South Africa. Dissatisfaction with the programs provided, insufficient student induction, and insufficient student work placement are some of the causes of the high attrition rate at TVET Colleges (Zulu and Mutereko 2020). The results of a study on gender inclusion in TVET conducted in Kenya by Cheruiyot and Munyi (2019) revealed several barriers to the implementation of sustainable gender equity interventions, including insufficient funding for activities geared toward enhancing gender equity, a lack of gender awareness among students, staff, and institution managers, unfavourable attitudes toward gender issues, and a lack of clear gender policy guidelines. The main issues facing the TVET sector in Ethiopia included the unwillingness of businesses to offer TVET trainees real-world training based on a cooperative training program. It was determined that despite increased access and equity in TVET, the sector’s growth would be negatively impacted by the low regard in which TVET is held by the general public, the lack of real company-based practical training for TVET trainees, and the lack of required competences among TVET trainers (Wirtu 2020).

Theoretical framework

The study adopted the theory of impression formation. The impression formation theory, put forth by Solomon Eliot Asch in 1907, was used in this investigation. “Making an impression” refers to a subconscious and spontaneous process of forming judgments about unfamiliar people or the environment. These beliefs influence how people interact with others and their environment, even if they are typically based on obscure facts about the subject (Prinzhorn 2013). Individuals are said to gather information, arrange it, and then eventually integrate it to construct cohesive and coherent situational impressions of other individuals. What information people consider important and deserving of their attention is shaped by their internalized expectations for particular situations. Additionally, these assumptions affect how people interpret this data. When people interact face-to-face, social cues like others’ physical attributes, verbal and nonverbal cues, and the social context in which the interaction takes place combine with information from the perceivers’ memories to affect how they form initial impressions of both others and themselves. The foundation for later attributions is laid by these initial impressions (Choo et al. 2013). This notion underlies some of the discussion surrounding the TVET sub-sector; many people lack adequate knowledge of TVET. There has been a particular attitude toward the students in the TVET subsector as a result of the public’s lack of knowledge about the subsector.

Decision-making is influenced by impressions in every person’s life. When choosing an educational course, many parents take the job pattern and societal perceptions into account. Think about what students aspire to accomplish or the kind of career that parents want their children to have once they graduate using this idea (impressions). This theory includes the idea that people’s mental expectations for particular events influence the information they see as important and deserving of their attention. Additionally, these assumptions affect how people interpret this data. People usually judge others quickly and based on scant information. Given that the public either has or lacks sufficient knowledge about TVET and its significance for national development, these theories are relevant to this study because applying theories allows for a better understanding of the people’s opinion of TVET.

The theory explains how members of society think and behave when they have little or no information of a problem or circumstance. Based on what individuals know, whether true or false, in the context of public perception of TVET. This theory is appropriate in this situation since it explains how people acquired and applied information. Therefore, the impression creation theory was the ideal fit to determine how the public is perceived. There have been numerous studies conducted on the challenges and benefits associated with the TVET subsector. However, certain challenges, such as infrastructure, funding, equipment, and teacher training, have been extensively understudied. The Government of Ghana has progressively addressed these challenges (Gondwe and Walenkamp 2011; Yangben and Seniwoliba 2014; Ghana Ministry of Education 2018; Council for Technical and Vocational Education (COTVET) 2020). These benefits include improved socio-economic and industrial development, self-employment, and poverty reduction (Ajufo 2013; Ansah and Kissi 2013; David 2015; Duhu and Mbaga 2016; Afeti 2017; Gyimah 2020; Palmer 2020). However, few or no further studies have been conducted to ascertain the level of public knowledge regarding the TVET subsector, which could help explain the low enrolment in the TVET subsector.

Method

Research approach

Gathering, analysing and interpreting of data from the field is crucial to the study as it provides the bases of addressing the problem of the study. This study sought to examining public knowledge on TVET. In this context the study adopted qualitative research method to explore the phenomenon. Qualitative research method, according to (Dick 2015), gives account on human thoughts, feelings, interpretation which are in line with what individual have seen and experiences and to give meaning to such phenomenon and therefore qualitative method answer the question “why”. This does not deal with hypothesis and therefore its base is inductive reasoning. On the path of qualitative method, phenomenology approach was used. This approach seeks to explain or describe individual or group of live experienced and feelings with phenomenon based on reality (subjective views). This explored the views of respondents on knowledge about TVET. The two data were used in gathering data which were primary and secondary. The primary data were the data gathered from the field (respondents) interview guide which was open-ended questions were used and this was done in a face-to-face manner.

Simple size and sampling procedure

The study sought to explore the students, school staff and parent’s knowledge on TVET subsector. This unit inquiry was carefully selected due to their involvement in the cycle of the TVET subsector. Participants were selected based on life experience, feelings and reality on tag perception about TVET them. Thirty-six (36) participants in total, including both males and females, were chosen for this study. This comprises two (2) school officers, twelve (12) males and female student each and five (5) male and female parent each. The parents were selected from student who participated in study but only ten (10) shown interested to participate. They were individuals who, in the researcher’s opinion, satisfied the study’s inclusion requirements. The participants students were selected from the Plumbing, Electrical, Catering, and Dress Making departments of training, as well as students from all levels (Forms 1–3), as well as gender, were included in the criteria. The school’s principal and the department head of teachers. In order to determine their perspective on perception, the study looked at parents of first-year students and parents of third-year students. The third-year students’ parents gave this as their justification: since their children had been in the school for three years, they had heard a lot from the public or society and could therefore express their opinions from the time they enrolled them till the present. Parents of new students were asked for their opinions on TVET and were encouraged to send their children there. This provided a more complete picture of the experiences shared by parents and students, or staff in TVET institutions, with the Ayawaso West Municipality. TVET students and their parents were matched. The study focused on The Opportunity Industrialization Centre’s. The study selected Opportunity Industrialization Centre’s with these reasons, it is cited in one elite society in Greater Accra Region, Ayawaso West Municipal Assembly. Out of the several schools in the Municipality, it is only TVET and Government second-cycle school schools according Ministry of Finance (2019) report and most of the students are not resident.

Sampling technique is the process used in selecting the sample size (respondent) to participate in the study. Due to the nature of the study being qualitative, the study adopted non-probability sample. In a non-probability sample, some units in the population are more likely to be chosen than others, according to Creswell (2014). Purposive sampling, a well-known non-probability sampling technique, was used in this study. The adopted purposive sampling. Purposive sampling, according to Rahi (2017), is the procedure where the researcher uses his or her judgment to choose a group of people who are acquainted with the issue at hand. The researcher had the chance to communicate directly with the major players in the TVET educational sector thanks to the use of purposeful sampling. By evaluating only data from a subgroup rather than all potential cases or elements Saunders and Shlomo (2021) recommend using sampling techniques to reduce the amount of data that must be collected.

Data analysis

With the aid of an interview guide, face-to-face key informant interviews were conducted with the chosen personnel and the parents of some focused group discussion participants. Semi-structured, open-ended questions were included in the interview guide. Based on the goals of the research, the guide was created. The public knowledge of TVET was covered in the personnel questions, along with the factors that contributed to that perception. Parents’ knowledge on TVET were both topics covered in the study. While the interviews with the teacher and head teacher were conducted in English, those with the parents were primarily conducted in Twi, a Ghanaian language (one of the Ghanaian languages). The school officials and the parents were both interviewed for between 40 and 60 min. With the experts’ and parents’ permission, all interviews were audio recorded. Interviews were conducted in English while being verbatim transcribed. Two experts and ten parents made up the twelve (12) Key Informant Interviews that were conducted. Additionally, three focus group discussions were held. Students from all class levels and from the fields of fashion design, electrical, catering, plumbing, and auto mechanics made up each group. There were eight (8) participants in each group. The groups were mixed, all-female, and all-male (males and females). The focused group discussion focused on gathering data regarding public perceptions of TVET education and students, as well as student knowledge. The choice to enrol in TVET was discussed during the focus group discussion. The length of each group discussion varied from 60 to 90 minutes. The interviews were conducted in English.

For this study, the data were manually analysed, and a thematic analysis was used. Creswell (2014) asserts that the thematic analysis accurately captures the participants’ experiences, meanings, and realities. Thematic analysis was an appropriate method of analysis because it supported qualitative data analyses that were ideal for informing policy development. Gaining unexpected insight into the situation of the public’s perception of TVET was made possible by thematic analysis. The participants’ sub-themes and the data collected revealed three main themes. The difficulties affecting the promotion of TVET were thoroughly understood. It made it possible to interpret the data using the knowledge and experience of the study participants, which is consistent with the inductive paradigm approach that the study emphasized. The principles for theme development proposed by Vaismoradi et al. (2016) were applied in this study. The interviews were transcribed, read, coded, and highlighted to reveal the meanings behind the accounts. It was also built, with the theme of the analysis established, and it was classified, compared, labelled, translated, defined, and described. The transcription reveals themes that were not predetermined.

Ethical consideration

Social researchers frequently strive to comprehend social processes by acquiring data from research participants. The collection of data from participants in social research must be done most compassionately and equitably. This means that researchers must address ethical considerations when studying subjects and handling data collected. The term ethics, according to Frankel, Wallen, and Hyun (2012), refers to problems of right and wrong. According to Bryman (2012), talks regarding research ethics put us into a realm where the role of values in the research process becomes a matter of concern and revolves around issues. Drawing on Bryman’s guide to ethical consideration, the following procedures were followed: Protecting participants from harm, responders must feel safe and be in the correct state of mind to answer the questions, Informed Consent, the researcher sought the informed consent of the respondents before conducting the research. Such informed consent allowed the participants to decide whether or not to participate. Right to Privacy, Participants were first and foremost notified of their right to privacy. The right to privacy means that a participant has the freedom to choose when and where he or she will engage in a study, The Right to Freedom of Choice and Expression, was necessary to ensure that the researcher did not interfere with the respondents’ choices and ideas. As a result, the researcher protected the participants’ right to free choice and expression, Confidentiality, and confidentiality a critical ethical problem to consider. Assuring participants about the safety of their comments is part of maintaining confidentiality and Anonymity, another ethical aspect that was considered was the safeguarding of the participants’ anonymity. The right to anonymity was granted to avoid disclosing the identities of the participants, which could have harmed them.

Findings

Two major themes that emerged from the thematic analysis were the focus of the analysis. (i) Awareness on TVET in Ghana, and (ii) Misconception on TVET in Ghana.

Awareness on TVET in Ghana

Meaningfully, all the participants provided enough information of their knowledge about TVET and its significance in socio-economic with being employment and contributing to development. However, the majority of the respondents attribute their knowledge of TVET to the informal sector. The concept of TVET is not something that is discussed in public discourse for people to really understand and therefore those who attend TVET are those who probably have some of their family or friends in the subsector. Because the students and parents do not have a fair knowledge about the subsector they resist when there is a recommendation for a student to attend or for a parent to allow his or her ward to attend, as participant shared their views.

Technical and vocational education is a place whereby a child goes to acquire a skill to help him or her to have handiwork so he can work without waiting for someone to search for a job for him or her (Female Parent).

In another shed a parent interview said that;

The rapid growth of the economy and infrastructure in China is the work of those who have technical and vocational training. We go there as Ghanaians to import things from there that take a lot of money into the country. I think such money would have stayed here if we had paid attention to our TVET (Female Parent).

A parent’s response to is in line with the student’s declaration during a focus group discussion. Students considered that TVET affords one the comfort of independence when it comes to employment. It is a combination of the classroom and practical aspects of learning as one can compare to the grammar-based school.

TVET will also let you try your hands on what you are learning so that when you finish your training you can work with it. Maybe you want to learn how to become a carpenter, mason, plumber, fashion designer, and so on. It is only in TVET schools that you can get such skills. (Female Student).

Parents revealed that TVET employment is in multiple and therefore if is there a lot of awareness and encouragement in public there would be been reduction in unemployment in society especially among the youth.

The TVET sector creates jobs, and it will make unemployment go down in the country. The unemployed graduate menace in the country would have been curbed if they had had technical and vocational skills. The number of unemployed graduates in the country may have been reduced or would not have existed if they had had hands-on skills. TVET creates a chain of employment. For example, when there is construction going on, there will be a need for plumbers, electricians, masons, and carpenters in their numbers. These people will buy the materials that they will use to work from the market. Those people will also spend the money somewhere else. This puts money in people’s pockets. At the end of it, the money goes back to the government in the form of taxes for development (Male Parent).

Contributing to the knowledge of TVET in Ghana, key stakeholders as school staff advance discussion of the awareness of the TVET and provide the motive behind the introduction of TVET in Ghana education as they revealed that;

TVET has been part of the Ghanaian education system since the colonial regime. When grammar-based education was introduced in Ghana, the missionaries also opened up vocational institutions to give training or skills to people who were old or mature and could not read and write in those days, serving as a source of livelihood for them. After independence, TVET was accepted in the formal education system to equip the youth with hands-on skills to make them productive and as well as earn an income (School principal).

Expending the discussion tutor also said;

TVET has been established by the government as part of our formal education for such schools to try to train some Ghanaian youth and make them relevant to national development through job creation (Tutor).

Interestingly, participants’ awareness of TVET revealed there is a wide difference between TVET and grammar-based schools. One who has had training in a TVET subsector is exposed to the world of jobs and independence.

The difference between a grammar-based school and TVET is that if two of them finish school, the one with a TVET certificate right from day one is coming to work because of the skills he has learned, but the other one needs to continue schooling before he can get a job to do. Vocational and technical schools give ideas about how to fix a car, lay a block, to do carpentry work. The one who went to a grammar-based school does not have an idea about how to do something at that stage, even if he or she continues his or her education. It is not likely he will get a job (Male Student).

A parent’s view is in line with the student’s view raised as revealed that grammar-based school has a long period of learning before one can be of master in the field study. Such a long period does not even guarantee employment to the one who completes from grammar-based. At least the one who completes TVET could start something immediately because of the practical aspect of the training.

TVET and grammar-based education come with great differences. For instance, while TVET students do in their learning stages, grammar-based students do not go through the same when learning. Since they are technical and vocational students, their training is directed toward getting handiwork even as they finish the second cycle of education. However, grammar-based education gives a long learning duration and one can fully gain employment only after he or she has advanced his or her studies. Can they fulfil the requirements for formal employment? (Male parent).

In expanding the debate, a parent raised an argument that TVET is more proactive in solving the current situation, especially in the crises. While TVET professionals were inventing and providing protective gear to prevent COVID it was obvious that grammar-based students or professionals were not in the picture as she had to this to say;

TVET solves problems. Let’s say this COVID-19, the way it was killing people and when we needed to protect ourselves, TVET people designed things like a veronica bucket to get water flowing to enable us to wash our hands freely, they sewed nose masks and produced liquid soaps. If not, some of these things that TVET people did, like some of us will be dead and we will not get people to work for the government or money to do certain things for the country (Female Parent).

In another shed the awareness of the TVET among the public was the source of the knowledge on the TVET. Significantly, participants became aware of TVET from those who are known in the informal sector. In that perspective, some parents were reluctant to allow their wards to attend such an institute while some students were uncomfortable accepting such a decision from parents as views were shared;

I did not know about TVET. All that I knew was secondary until one day, my son told me he wanted to become a plumber. I asked what they did, and he said they fixed water pipes. Not knowing, my boy had been following a friend who is a plumber. I did not accept his wish for the first time until he brought my brother, who is his uncle and knows much about education, to explain it to me further (Male Parent).

Many interviews with parents indicated that some parents were not aware of the TVET in the formal sector that being in the classroom setting but thought that TVET is all about the informal subsector where it does not involve reading and writing as well as the parent share her in line male parent.

A friend of mine came to the house and saw my daughter home after she completed JHS. So, he asked whether I had gotten to school yet, and I responded no. He then takes her to vocational school. My daughter is there, and she is doing very well just a year after she enrolled. She can bake (Female Parent).

A student gave his view revealed that he did not have any information from anyone and relaxing to accept his father’s decision nearly resulted in misunderstanding because in the basic school, the discussion around from some of the teachers was all about grammar-based school as he had this to say;

For me, I did not know anything. Hmmm, it was my father who said to me after JHS that, these days, getting a job after university is not even easy. Therefore, you should learn something that will help you get your job. I was in the house one day and he brought a form for me to fill out, and it was for technical school. I needed to obey my father, so I asked him which course I should choose, and he said plumbing. I was very disappointed. Because I wanted to be in secondary school when I came home from school, friends would also say I should have gone to a proper school, but it did not happen. Right now, I’m happy because I get some money even though I have not finished school, thanks to my father (Male Student).

In the student revelation a parent is dragged with her daughter on the idea that she is interested in attending TVET. The parent did not understand the concept of TVET and it took her uncle to convince me (mother) about the importance of TVET as she had this to say;

I thought hands-on skills did not need any formal education. When she told me about her interest in studying at a TVET centre, I did not know anything like that and I insisted that her to attending a grammar-based school. she wanted and inform her uncle about it so per the explanation the uncle gave me knew about it (Female Parent).

The participants exhibited some level of awareness concerning the TVET. However, from the findings, there is a link that those who are aware of TVET are people who have come in contact with the subsector. Those who are not brought some reluctance in their acceptance of patronaging in the subsector. From the scenario, people could have enrolled on the TVET subsector if there had been public information on the importance and encouraged the people to consider TVET, the expectation of gaining employment after completion would have been met. Because society has failed to promote TVET the concern of TVET making TVET a higher priority cannot be met. When society becomes aware of a phenomenon like TVET being known as a game changer in the socio-economic space it will call for more interest and, in the end, government will achieve the essence of promoting TVET. Again, a parent could help assist their wards in choosing a career that would make them achieve their passion.

The public lack the awareness about TVET has been seen in the light of deepening of the misconception about TVET. As the below the views shared the participants on the issues on misconception surrounding TVET.

Misconception on TVET in Ghana

As participants pointed out TVET has a lot of misconceptions among people in society. The few in the society knows that TVET is a contributing factor the socio-economic development across the Ghana and by the globe. However, there are many who have ill thought about the subsector which is driving a lot of potential youth from enrolling by extension it is becoming an impediment to their career and employment status. Society or individuals may not want to be associated with something negative. This negative thought about TVET is a result of many people who do not have in-depth knowledge of the subsector. Below are some of the excerpts gathered from the interviews from the participants:

Society of people think that those of us in TVET school do not know anything. They’ve been saying that TVET is for only failures in society. One can attend TVET school without a Junior High School certificate, and therefore, anybody who could not make it to Senior High School thinks of TVET (Female Student).

The space of the TVET profession is highly dominated by the informal sector. In this regard, society has the mindset that it does not need one should acquire an advanced certificate to attain it. In this perspective many in the society peg formal sector to be the same as the informal. In many cases, people are sent to be apprentices when failing to take he or she education seriously and young people who are known as not intelligent are recommended to go and learn hands-on skills. The thought shared by the student is in line with one of the school officials.

TVET is for those who are not intelligent, drop out, or do not have any aim in society, so even if somebody completes Junior High School or Senior High School and is being asked to go to vocational school, he/she asks what they are going to do because everybody thinks it is for those who are not intelligent, so there is no future for those going to technical and vocational education. So that has been the perception of the public even today, but now, as a result of exposure, I think that perception is dying gradually as people have seen the advantages of TVET. At least you are sure of getting a job to do for yourself (Tutor)

In confirming the misconception about TVET, a parent admitted his resistance to allowing his daughter to enroll in TVET. The little information he had suggests that the subsector is meant for people in deprived societies or rejects in society and does not have career advancement. Below are some of the excerpts gathered from the interviews with the participants:

For one not having the right information may lead a lot astray. I did not want my daughter to attend TVET only those who are there are known to be coming from a deprived society. Many I have seen just after completion do not get the opportunity to continue to the highest level. The thought was that the second cycle happened to their utmost career path. Until my daughter enrolled with the advice of my brother now she plans to continue to Technical University to offer advanced in fashion design (Male parent).

Society holds attitude as one of the assets that are used to measure young people and therefore everyone wants to hold onto this value. Some attitudes put up by individuals in the subsector turn to create an impression that the TVET subsector deliberately trains trainees bad attitudes. From a different angle society fail to recognize that most immoral attitude are pick from the society and the TVET institutions ultimate goal is training students. Below are some of the excerpts gathered from focus group discussion from the participant:

TVET is associated with all the bad attitudes in society, the wee smokers, troublemakers, and many more. A friend of mine once asked if I had started smoking, and I told him no. I asked why he said that, and he replied that he had been hearing of things in TVET schools like smoking. All I said was that it was not true (Male Student).

Misconception is great disservice to the TVET subsector in Ghana. The information about TVET is not disseminated proper in the society but rather it has open floor gate for people to assume TVET subsector to the negative influence. It would not appear to be appealing to the brilliant pupils who have passed their basic school examination once it is known that the TVET subsector is open to those who have failed their basic education examination. Again, the perception that the TVET sector is notorious for harboring radicals is a major source of concern for society. Parents want to enroll their children in schools where they will be reformed rather than reinforced in bad behaviors that are frowned upon by society because the education industry is notorious for forming bad behaviour in school-age children. Because the TVET subsector didn’t address the public’s concerns, a false belief crept in and obscured the subsector’s true intentions. In this regard, stakeholders would need to put TVET at a level that the general public could comprehend. Therefore, the criteria for admitting students to TVET and the norms and regulations for students must be considered to change that perception. For instance, public education and engagement should be stepped up.

Discussion

The findings revealed that some sections of society are aware of TVET due to its relationship with the subsector. The impression formation theory serves as the study’s foundation. People’s decisions or opinions based on scant, or no knowledge of the issues served as the foundation for this theory. This theory offered insight into how the general public’s acceptance of a piece of information is founded on scant or no knowledge, creating a window of opportunity to challenge a phenomenon like the TVET subsector. Decision-making in life is impacted by first impressions for everyone. When making educational decisions, a lot of parents take the career pattern, and the way society views a certain educational path into account.

Applying this theory (impressions), think about the goals that students have or the kind of job that parents hope their kids will pursue after graduation. This theory considers how people’s internal expectations for events influence the information they deem important and deserving of their attention. Applying this theory (impressions), think about the goals that students have or the kind of job that parents hope their kids will pursue after graduation. This theory considers how people’s internal expectations for events influence the information they deem important and deserving of their attention. Furthermore, people’s interpretations of this information are influenced by these expectations. People usually make snap judgements about other people based on scant information. “Making an impression” refers to the unconsciously unconscious process of forming judgements about unfamiliar people or surroundings, as stated by Prinzhorn (2013). These kinds of beliefs influence how people interact with others and their environment, even though they are often based on little-known facts about the subject.

The knowledge shared by the participants aligns with many research views. TVET, in its broadest sense, encompasses both formal and informal technical education, vocational education, technical programs, on-the-job training, and apprenticeship training (Gyimah 2020). It has the potential to make individuals or groups of people self-dependent after acquiring knowledge and skills. The interest of TVET is to make individuals available for specific work and can serve as a means to reduce unemployment and other challenges in the country. As stated by Ansah and Kissi (2013, p. 18), the motivation behind TVET is to empower people with technical know-how, focusing on the socio-economic and industrial development of any country. The focus of equipping people is to make them self-employed. It has been argued that technical and vocational education (TVE) is intended only for the youth to acquire knowledge and skills that can make them potential contributors to society and lead a meaningful life (Ajufo 2013). TVET is specialized education that aims to prepare individuals by developing their skills and knowledge, human strengths, cognitive understanding, attitudes, and behavioural patterns, enabling them to be well-prepared for future employment or self-employment opportunities after graduation (Duhu and Mbaga 2016, pp. 91–108).

Building on the knowledge of TVET, participants furthered the argument regarding the distinction between TVET and grammar-based schools. They highlighted that TVET is more practical and equips individuals with employable skills compared to grammar-based education. This perspective has been shared by numerous scholars in the field. The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) (2018) supported this viewpoint, stating that well-designed formal TVET programs may have a greater impact than general education in integrating disadvantaged individuals, such as women and youth, into the workforce and increasing their earnings. They also emphasized that informal and non-formal TVET initiatives can contribute to reducing poverty, inequality, and social exclusion by offering underprivileged groups the opportunity to acquire job-related skills.

According to Streeck (2012), general education aims to enhance abilities like literacy and numeracy, which are valuable in various occupations, while TVET focuses on developing skills specifically tailored to certain jobs. However, there has been considerable debate regarding general and specific skills. TVET combines courses from general education with specialized fields, whereas general education does not focus on preparing individuals for specific jobs. Television education and training (Afeti and Stefen 2014) is considered one of the key solutions for human resource development (HRD). Technical and vocational education and training (TVET) have the potential to stimulate individuals’ interest in pursuing careers in the economy (Sumberg et al. 2021). TVET can assist students in developing occupational skills and broadening their interests (Aring 2015). Its objective is to enable learners to meet the demands of employers for skilled labour while fulfilling their own HRD needs in the emerging knowledge-based economy. Consequently, TVET systems have access to reliable sources of information regarding job creation, investment opportunities, and economic growth. TVET also demonstrates a quicker response to intervention compared to general education. For example, during the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic, Majumdar et al. (2020) pointed out that TVET institutions played a central role in Spain by producing protective gear and essential supplies like sanitiser and masks. The theoretical framework aids in comprehending the study, as it considers students’ desired achievements and the career aspirations parents have for their children after graduation. One component of this theory is how internal expectations for specific events shape individuals’ perception of what information is significant and deserving of their attention.

Based on the findings of the study, it is evident that the public has misconceptions about TVET. It is pointed out that TVET is often perceived as intended only for certain categories of people in society. This viewpoint has been widely discussed in the literature. For example, Yangben and Seniwoliba (2014) indicate that many parents discourage their academically inclined children from pursuing technical courses and instead recommend technical education for those who are considered academically weak. Moreover, various occupations and trades are deemed as ignoble and unsuitable. Typically, Ghanaian parents do not want their sons to pursue full-time careers as farmers, masons, watch repairers, plumbers, or house painters. These jobs, according to many Ghanaians, are associated with poverty, low social class, marginalization, and being underprivileged.

Additionally, TVET is seen as providing students with limited managerial skills, and the training itself requires a substantial amount of money. Employers hold a negative perception of TVET at the Pоlyteсhnіс, considering it a program for academically weak students. Employers perceive TVET graduates as ill-prepared to be resourceful and self-reliant, lacking necessary communication skills, as well as problem-solving and critical thinking abilities. Some studies (Ansah and Kissi 2013; Okae-Adjei 2017) support these views. Understanding the context of development has greatly benefited from the impression formation theory. Numerous empirical research studies and theoretical discussions have demonstrated a significant contribution to the understanding that individuals do not form opinions solely based on information; therefore, knowledge plays a role in shaping unfavourable perceptions of TVET.

Conclusion and implications

The global seriousness attached to TVET cannot be underestimated as a paradigm shift in promoting employment, especially in developing countries like Ghana. Despite the Ghanaian government’s willingness to make TVET attractive to young people, the reality on the ground is that there are misconceptions surrounding TVET, hindering the government’s efforts and resulting in the subsector recording the lowest enrolment. This not only leads to a loss in enrolment for the country but also poses significant challenges for the government in terms of employment issues.

A segment of the public is aware of the significance of TVET in socio-economic development. These sections include students, artisans (parents), and tutors in the subsector. However, many parents remain unaware of the importance of TVET and consequently do not enrol their children in this field. This exacerbates the issue of unemployment, as the government’s attempts to solve unemployment may inadvertently increase it.

Furthermore, those already in the subsector and those considering joining it may be discouraged due to negative perceptions. It is therefore crucial for stakeholders to engage the public in a TVET awareness campaign and showcase the importance of TVET in socio-economic development.