Introduction

The European Green Deal aims to facilitate the transition of Europe’s economy to an era where carbon will not be used (European Commission 2019). The transitional stage requires the adaption of environmentally friendly practices and lifestyle. The way we live, our daily choices, the way goods and services are designed, produced and traded must change. These radical changes require appropriate education (UNESCO 2021). The development of sustainability competences among students of initial vocational education is unquestionably necessary (Cedefop 2021). Therefore, examining the readiness of teachers to respond to this role is considered important.

In this paper, we present the primary research we designed to examine the motivation, as an element of readiness, of Vocational High School teachers in Greece to create learning opportunities that develop sustainability competences in students. The study utilizes the expectancy-value theory as a framework, along with UNESCO’s definition of readiness to teach about sustainability and the European sustainability competence framework GreenComp. The research focuses on teachers of vocational courses in three sectors of Vocational High Schools in Greece: (a) Agriculture-Food and Environment, (b) Management-Economy, and (c) Mechanical Engineering. The selection of these specific sectors for the study was based on an analysis of employment statistics in various economic sectors and the observed shift toward green skills within them. The “Agriculture-Food and Environment” sector was chosen due to projections indicating a decrease in overall employment in Greece’s primary sector, but a high demand for jobs requiring advanced green skills due to labor force replacement (Cedefop 2020). The “Management-Economy” sector was selected due to the wide range of employment opportunities it offers to graduates and the growing need for green skills in the broader field of financial services and management (LinkedIn Economic Graph 2022). Additionally, the “Mechanical Engineering” sector was chosen for examination as it was determined that there is a significant transition toward green skills among employees in the industrial sector (Cedefop 2020).

The research questions are (RQ1) Are there specific sustainability competences that exhibit a low level of motivation among vocational teachers to impart to their students? Furthermore, which sustainability competences elicit the lowest ability beliefs, least interest, and highest associated costs among vocational teachers, as reported by their views and attitudes? (RQ2) How is teachers’ motivation to develop sustainability competences, related to the vocational sector in which they teach? (RQ3) How are teachers’ motivation to develop sustainability competences related to their teaching experience, professional development on sustainability, and experience in innovative pedagogical practices?

The multiple challenges faced by teachers of vocational education, within their complex role, require an integrated approach to their professional development in order to improve education and training processes in Europe (Sytziouki 2022). Upon examining the research findings, the study identifies the needs of vocational teachers that warrant further attention and intervention. Given the lack of systematic training in this field in Greece (Sytziouki 2022) the research can contribute to the design of appropriately targeted training programs and interventions, based on the European GreenComp sustainability competence framework. This research can also be extended to other vocational sectors. Additionally, the research tests the GreenComp framework as a basis for the creation of a reliable research tool. Meanwhile, it introduces teachers of vocational courses to the GreenComp framework, contributing to its dissemination.

Background

The importance of the green transition

Complex processes among interacting elements within the earth system shape climate (Flato 2011). In the peer-reviewed scientific literature, more than 99% of the total publications demonstrate a consensus among scientists on human-caused contemporary climate change (Lynas et al. 2021). To meet societies’ needs for water, food, and energy, human activities have become a force that increasingly disrupts the earth system, which includes the atmosphere, hydrosphere, geosphere, and biosphere (Steffen et al. 2015). Climate change is already affecting Europe, where the highest temperatures have been recorded in recent years (EU responses to climate change 2022). Depending on the region, climate change can lead to loss of biodiversity, forest fires, and reduced crop yields, while it can affect water availability, economic development, and people’s health (Hoegh-Guldberg et al. 2018). For the future of Europe and of the entire world, it has been deemed necessary to deal with climate change. If not mitigated, a significant portion of humanity will be exposed to almost unprecedented average annual temperatures (Xu et al. 2020).

The European Green Deal aims for climate neutrality by 2050, not only by reducing greenhouse gas emissions but also offsetting any remaining emissions (5 facts about the EU’s goal of climate neutrality 2022). It is a long-term development policy that aims to transition to a prosperous, inclusive society and a competitive economy that uses natural resources efficiently. Its ultimate purpose is to protect, preserve, and strengthen the natural capital of the European Union as well as to protect the health and well-being of citizens from effects and risks related to the environment (European Commission 2019). The goal of zero carbon emissions by 2050, initiated several studies on the feasibility of alternative energy systems and its implications on economy and society, with different assumptions and scope. Nevertheless, their results, to be interpreted and communicated to policy and decision makers, need thorough knowledge of assumptions and comparisons (Hainsch et al. 2022).

Although the European Green Deal has clear goals, EU policies and measures do not guarantee its success. To achieve a sustainable economy and society requires transformative changes. It is imperative that there is a widespread acceptance and active engagement by citizens in the objectives of the European Green Deal. The sustainable use of natural resources, the protection and restoration of natural ecosystems, and the improvement of the health of citizens need to be adopted as the highest values. Furthermore, the achievement of the European Green Deal objectives is likely to be uncertain if there are a lack of adequate comprehension and monitoring of the consequences of each measure, and absence of measurable benchmarks for ecological, financial, and societal sustainability. With the current global transformations and challenges confronting the EU, implementation of the Green Deal without the recommended adjustments could potentially undermine sustainable development and the EU’s unity. The transition to climate neutrality can only be successful in the long term if it is supported by conviction and consensus (Filipović et al. 2022). Although climate change has been a major policy issue in the past few decades, many politicians and media are denying the human role in its occurrence. This soft climate change denial, with manipulation of scientific information, undermines calls for international cooperation on climate change and individual action to reduce greenhouse gas emissions (Boulianne and Belland 2022).

Competences and skills for the green transition

The implementation of the European Green Deal has the potential to positively impact the European labor market. As it shifts toward a sustainable economy, it necessitates the development of new workforce competences and skills and corresponding education and training. To ensure a smooth and equitable green transition, the upskilling and reskilling of workers must be a central focus, in order to assist them in adapting to the changing requirements (Cedefop 2021; European Commission 2019).

In literature, we often encounter the terms “green skills”, “green jobs” and “green competences”. “Green skills” are defined as the skills that will be needed in all sectors and at all levels of the workforce in order to adapt products, services and processes to climate change and related environmental requirements and regulations (OECD/Cedefop 2014; Council of the European Union 2022). In order to be able to statistically monitor the “greening” of occupations, action 6 of the European Skills Agenda includes the definition of a classification of skills for the green transition (European Commission 2022). For the term “Green jobs” there is no commonly accepted definition (Auktor 2020). They are simplified presented as jobs that cannot be practiced without significant green skills (LinkedIn Economic Graph 2022). Green professions can either produce goods and provide services that benefit the environment or contribute to more environmentally friendly processes. They must also provide decent working conditions (van der Ree 2019). “Sustainability competences” are a concept broader than “green skills” as they contribute to a sustainable way of living, working, and acting (Bianchi et al. 2022). Through a systematic literature review of 66 scientific articles published in the period 1992–2017, Cabral and Dhar (2021) identified six different dimensions of the concept of sustainability competences, which are knowledge, skills, abilities, awareness, attitudes, and behavior. They point out that the term “sustainability competences” is evolving and there is no consensus on its dimensions. In 2022, the European “sustainability competence” framework GreenComp was developed, as one of the actions set out in the European Green Deal. In this context, a set of sustainability competences are clearly identified to be integrated into educational programs and to facilitate the acquisition of knowledge, abilities, and attitudes in students that promote ways of thinking, planning, and acting with empathy, responsibility, and care for the environment and for the well-being of society (Bianchi et al. 2022). The Council of the European Union (2022) emphasizes the important role of educational institutions in the success of the green transition. Students of all ages must be equipped with knowledge, skills, and attitudes that will enable them to live sustainably, change consumption and production patterns, adopt healthier lifestyles, and contribute to a more sustainable economy and society. Education on green transition and sustainable development is crucial in developing new skills and competences needed in the labor market and in understanding the environmental, social, economic, and cultural dimensions of climate change, environmental degradation, and biodiversity loss as global challenges.

The role of vocational education and training for the green transition

In view of the green transition, it was deemed necessary to significantly expand and improve the offer of vocational education and training (VET) for both young people and adults, while increasing the attractiveness and quality of initial VET. Thus, in December 2018, the Advisory Committee on Vocational Training set the vision for excellent, inclusive, and lifelong VET that meets the demands of the future caused by economic, technological, and social changes (Council of the European Union 2020).

Under the pressure of climate change and all the problems stemming from the dominant consumer economy model, perhaps the most important challenge for VET is that its meaning must be redefined, so that the development of a new culture in VET will facilitate the transition to sustainability. Apart from the ecological profile of VET institutions, this includes the introduction of new forms of transformative learning, as well as the reorientation of VET systems to meet the increasing demands for green skills (Langthaler et al. 2021).

Since the beginning of 2010, the education system in Greece has been challenged to upgrade VET, improving its quality, attractiveness, and effectiveness. In 2020, Law 4763 enacted comprehensive amendments to the regulations governing VET apprenticeships, provision, and the national qualifications framework. Additionally, it established a system for certifying VET graduates and created two new categories of VET institutions: the Pilot Vocational High Schools and the Thematic-Pilot Vocational Training Institutes. The process of developing new curricula, oriented toward learning outcomes, as well as training activities to improve the quality and skills of VET teachers, has begun. However, the procedures of writing the new curricula for vocational high schools proved to be time-consuming and have not yet been completed, while no measures have been taken for the professional development of teachers in green competences so far (Sytziouki 2022). The significance of this study lies in the dearth of training programs focused on sustainability competences, as well as the heterogeneity of vocational teachers that must be considered in their professional development, including factors, such as subject area, experience, educational background, age, and gender (Sytziouki 2022).

Teachers’ readiness

According to UNESCO (2021) “teacher readiness is related to the motivation, skills, and opportunities that teachers have to effectively teach about sustainable development and to instil in students the knowledge, skills, values, attitudes, and behaviors that will enable them to create sustainable, just and peaceful societies, through individual and collective action at local and global levels.” We found no evidence on research on measuring vocational teachers’ readiness to develop students’ analyzing competences for sustainability in initial VET. We also remarked that instead of the term “readiness” the term “self-efficacy” for education for sustainable development is often encountered.

The concept of self-efficacy, as defined by Bandura (1977), refers to an individual’s belief in their capacity to organize and execute the necessary actions to attain specific goals. This construct is deemed of paramount importance in the professional development of teachers, as it holds a significant impact on their feelings, thoughts, motivations, and behaviors (Moseley et al. 2010; Boeve-de Pauw et al. 2022). Various scales have been developed to assess the self-efficacy of science teachers, based on the original STEBI tool (Science Teaching Efficacy Belief Instrument). As a variant of STEBI, a unique tool in the context of environmental education was created, the EEEBI (Environmental Education Efficacy Belief Instrument). The evolution of environmental education and the need for education for sustainable development highlighted the necessity of developing a new self-efficacy measurement tool. To investigate self-efficacy for education for sustainable development, a questionnaire for primary school teachers, the TSESESD (Teachers’ analyzing Self-Efficacy on Education for Sustainable Development) was developed (Malandrakis et al. 2019), based on Bandura’s social learning theory. To define self-efficacy, the researchers took into account the beliefs about the ability to successfully demonstrate a behavior and the beliefs about achieving the desired result from the demonstration of this behavior. According to Bandura, to perform an activity successfully one needs knowledge or skills and self-efficacy. Thus, Malandrakis and colleagues included in their questionnaire not only the measurement of self-efficacy, but also perceived knowledge of content and pedagogical content (Malandrakis et al. 2019). Other researchers have also relied on this questionnaire (Boeve-de Pauw et al. 2022).

The research conducted by Ranta et al. (2022) on future teachers’ readiness to teach entrepreneurial skills to their students is grounded on the expectancy-value theory. Eccles and Wigfield (2002) report that expectancy beliefs are measured in a manner analogous to Bandura’s measures of personal efficacy expectations (Eccles and Wigfield 2002). The use of the term “expectation of success” in the expectancy-value theory is closely related to the self-efficacy of Bandura’s social-cognitive theory (Ranta et al. 2022). The expectancy-value theory was also used by Stössel et al. (2021) in their research on the predictors of teachers’ intention to implement education for sustainable development (Stössel et al. 2021). Thus, the expectancy-value theory is suitable to be used as a theoretical framework in this research.

Research by Scharenberg et al. (2021) in Germany, in a sample of 1318 secondary school students, showed that the higher the teachers’ self-efficacy for education for sustainable development, the higher the development of students’ sustainability knowledge and self-reported behavioral intentions, respectively (Scharenberg et al. 2021). The findings of this study, in conjunction with the previously established need for the development of sustainability competences among students, as outlined in earlier sections of this paper, serve to validate the relevance and utility of the present research.

According to UNESCO (2021), teacher readiness encompasses three key components: motivation, opportunities, and skills. This study specifically aims to assess teachers’ motivation. Opportunities, such as support and resources, are provided through external means. For the purpose of this study, it is assumed that factors related to opportunities are adequately provided, as educational authorities recognize the importance of education for sustainability. In terms of skills, it refers to teachers’ thematic, pedagogical, and organizational knowledge of sustainable development, their ability to integrate these themes in various contexts within their classrooms, and the extent to which teacher education has prepared them to teach and assess in these contexts. Therefore, educational experience, training in sustainability issues, and experience in innovative pedagogical practices will be considered as indicators of skills.

How motivation affects individuals’ choices, persistence, and performance is a complex topic that has been studied by many theorists. The expectancy-value theory states that motivation is determined by an individual’s beliefs about their own success and the value they place on the activity (Eccles and Wigfield 2002). This theory suggests that a person’s choice of task, the effort they put into it, and ultimately their success can be predicted by their expectations and values. Expectations include the individual’s perception of their own abilities, while subjective values include factors, such as the achievement value, the utility value, the personal interest, and its relative cost. The importance the individual places on performing well in the activity is taken as achievement value. Utility value refers to how well the activity fits into the person’s short-term or long-term plans. Personal interest refers to the pleasure the individual receives from performing the activity. Relative cost is associated with negative aspects in performing the activity, such as the effort required for the specific task and the emotional cost. Expectancy-value theory offers a framework for studying how teachers can improve their own expectations (Ranta et al. 2022). Figure 1 depicts the conceptual framework of the present study. It includes the dimensions of readiness for education for sustainable development and the components of motivation that will be examined.

Fig. 1
figure 1

The conceptual framework

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The Council of Europe emphasizes the importance of recognizing that all educators, regardless of their subject area or educational background, are responsible for teaching sustainability, as well as the need to provide opportunities and incentives for educators to engage in professional development in this area (Council of the European Union 2022). Examining teachers’ readiness to create learning opportunities that develop sustainability competences in students can reveal specific areas that require improvement and aligns with the Council of Europe’s recommendations to member states to support educators in fostering learning for the green transition and sustainable development.

Learning opportunities for the green transition are the result of appropriate learning and teaching processes and methods but it is not clear and documented which methods are most effective (Riess et al. 2022). The effectiveness of teaching approaches is influenced by context, such as level of education, school environment, and local community (Bianchi et al. 2022). Teachers have at their disposal various pedagogical practices, such as active learning, gamification, role play, experimentation games and simulations, analysis of case studies in real conditions drawn from the local context, project-based learning, outdoor approaches, and collaborative approaches with external partners (Bianchi et al. 2022). Vocational teachers should therefore be able to create learning opportunities for the green transition, appropriate for their own context, their own classroom.

The GreenComp framework

In the literature, we find a wide range of descriptions for green competences (Cabral and Dhar 2021). From time to time, efforts have been made to create competence frameworks for sustainable development (Helin 2021). The need to create a European competence framework for sustainability was underlined in both the European Green Deal (European Commission 2019) and the European Skills Agenda for Sustainable Competitiveness, Social Justice and Resilience (European Commission 2020). Specific transformative competences, needed for a more just and sustainable future, had to be defined (Helin 2021). The GreenComp framework is the result of a robustly designed research methodology that engaged a large and diverse group of experts and stakeholders, who reached consensus on the final proposal.

The GreenComp framework identifies sustainability skills and competences for students of all ages and for all educational settings. It offers a common language on competences for sustainability and is suggested to be used for policy development, evaluation of existing curricula, design of new ones, and reflection (Bianchi et al. 2022). The GreenComp framework (Table 1) includes twelve competences grouped into four areas: (1) Embodying sustainability values, (2) Embracing complexity in sustainability, (3) Envisioning sustainable futures, and (4) Acting for sustainability. There is a dynamic relationship and interaction between the areas. All sustainability competences are equally important, so the numbering does not imply any hierarchy or necessary order of acquisition. GreenComp provides a commonly agreed definition of sustainability as a competence, which can act as a catalyst in supporting education and training institutions in teaching and learning about sustainability (Bianchi et al. 2022).

Table 1 The GreenComp sustainability competences
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Opportunities to develop transformative capacities should exist at all levels of lifelong learning (formal, non-formal and informal learning) (Helin 2021). Competency-based education helps pupils/students not only to know a subject but also to be able to act on it (Bianchi et al. 2022). This is exactly what is needed to be achieved, for the green transition (Council of the European Union 2022).

There are several reasons that led us to the usage of GreenComp in our research. It is the most up-to-date sustainability competence framework, since it has been published in January 2022. It was created within the framework of the actions for the Green Deal to support education and its use is recommended in the member states, by the European Council. Like EntreComp and DigComp, the other European frameworks for entrepreneurial and digital competences, respectively, GreenComp has flexibility, that allows it to serve different purposes and enables it to be adapted each time to the needs it serves (Bacigalupo 2022). As it uses a common language, it facilitates its communication, comparisons, and combinations. Thus, the important abilities that the framework describes are learned, taught, validated, and recognized more easily (Bacigalupo 2022). Although there is no published research based on GreenComp yet, studies based on other competence frameworks that have long been adopted and promoted by the European Commission shows the value of these frameworks for research purposes.

The GreenComp Sustainability Competence Framework is expected to be used for a variety of purposes and by different stakeholders, including the preparation of teachers to teach about sustainability, within programs of initial training and continuing professional development of teachers and the formulation of policies to promote environmental sustainability learning, by policy makers, at local, regional, or national level. Thus, GreenComp is used in our study in alignment with the goals of its creation.

Methods

The purpose of this study is to examine vocational teachers’ motivation as a factor in their readiness to create learning opportunities that develop sustainability competences in students, as outlined by the European GreenComp framework. To address the research questions, primary quantitative data were collected, on indicators of the three dimensions of motivation, specifically ability beliefs, interest, and relative cost.

Data collection

A closed-ended online questionnaire was utilized as the data collection tool. Prior to its official administration, the questionnaire was pilot tested by four vocational teachers who provided feedback on the time required to complete it and identified areas of improvement. These teachers were excluded from the final sample. After making the necessary revisions, the final version of the questionnaire, along with a cover letter, was distributed via email to all vocational high schools in the country that offered programs in the sectors of interest, a total of 387 vocational schools. Table 2 presents the response rates, as estimated according to number of respective vocational classes per sector (Ministry of Education 2022).

Table 2 Response rates per vocational sector
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Data were collected from September 28th, 2022 to October 9th, 2022, yielding a total of 173 responses. Non-probability sampling was employed due to practical constraints on the time available for the survey. Table 3 presents a summary of the characteristics of the sample.

Table 3 Characteristics of the sample
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The questionnaire consisted of three sections. Section A solicited information on socio-demographic characteristics, such as gender, age, geographical location, vocational sector, employment status, and type of vocational high school. Section B pertained to the participants’ professional background, specifically their educational experience, training on sustainability issues, and experience with innovative pedagogical practices. Section C presented descriptors of the twelve GreenComp sustainability competences and included three items for each competence, which were evaluated on a five-point Likert scale that assessed the three dimensions of motivation: (a) ability beliefs, assessed with the statement “I am capable of creating learning opportunities that develop this competence in my students,” (b) interest, assessed with the statement “I am interested in creating learning opportunities that develop this competence in my students,” and (c) associated cost, assessed with the statement “It is my responsibility to create learning opportunities that develop this competence in my students.” In this last item, agreement with the statement is perceived as indicating that the creation of learning opportunities that develop the specific sustainability competence is considered a duty with little perceived negative dimensions and associated effort or emotional cost.

Questionnaire validity and reliability

In social sciences, questionnaires are commonly used as a tool for quantifying human behavior, thus it is important that they possess both reliability and validity. Reliability refers to the consistency of measurement over time or under different conditions, while validity refers to the ability of the questionnaire to measure what it is intended to measure (Drost 2011). The reliability of the questionnaire was established through the inclusion of a sufficient number of questions covering all of the GreenComp sustainability competencies. Additionally, internal reliability was assessed by calculating the Cronbach alpha coefficient. To further enhance reliability, the questionnaire was accompanied by an explanatory note that provided information on the purpose of the study, anonymity, and data protection, the estimated time required for completion and contact information for the author. The validity of the questionnaire was ensured by its alignment with the expectancy-value theory of motivation, the European GreenComp Competence Framework, and the UNESCO’s conceptual framework for teachers’ readiness in education for sustainability.

Research techniques per research question

The data collected were coded using the MS Excel program and subsequently analyzed using IBM SPSS software. Independent variables included teacher specialty, educational experience, training in sustainability issues, and experience in innovative pedagogical practices. The dependent variables were ability beliefs, interest, relative cost, and a composite variable for motivation. Additionally, composite variables for total ability beliefs, total interest, and total relative cost were also calculated.

Initially, the internal consistency of the questionnaire was assessed by calculating the Cronbach alpha correlation coefficient, a widely used method for this purpose (Drost 2011). To address research question RQ1, the frequency distribution of the motivation dimensions (ability beliefs, interest, relative cost) for each competence was examined in order to identify GreenComp competencies with high rates of negative statements. Means were calculated for all competences to determine which GreenComp competences exhibit low competency beliefs, low interest, and high relative cost. To address research question RQ2, the correlation between the composite variable “motivation” and the variable “vocational sector” was tested for each competence separately to identify GreenComp competences for which teachers’ statements of motivation differ by the vocational sector in which they teach. The statistical criterion used for testing correlations between variables, for both RQ2 and RQ3, was determined by the normality or non-normality of the data. Therefore, a Kolmogorov–Smirnov test for normality of distribution was initially performed for these variables. Results indicated that data were not normally distributed; thus, correlations were examined using Kruskal–Wallis tests. To investigate research question RQ3, the correlation between the composite variable “motivation” and the independent variables “educational experience,” “training on sustainability issues,” and “experience in innovative pedagogical practices” was examined for all GreenComp competences.

Results

In order to evaluate the consistency of our questionnaire, we computed the Cronbach’s alpha coefficient for each set of items pertaining to each competence. The internal consistency for all competences was determined to be favorable to outstanding, with values ranging from 0.769 to 0.887 (as presented in Table 4). Additionally, the Cronbach’s alpha coefficient for the variables of total ability beliefs, total interest, and total relative cost were all found to be greater than 0.9, thereby reinforcing the reliability of the questionnaire.

Table 4 Means and Cronbach alpha of dimensions of motivation, for all competences
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Regarding the first research question, an examination of the frequency distribution for the three dimensions of motivation (ability beliefs, interest, and relative cost) for each of the GreenComp competences reveals that none of the competences exhibited high rates of negative responses (“totally disagree” and “disagree”). The highest percentages were observed in the positive responses (“totally agree” and “agree”) (see Appendix, Table 11). Means were also calculated for all competences and dimensions of motivation (as presented in Table 4). Overall, it can be observed that all mean values were greater than or close to 4, indicating a strong agreement among participants with the questionnaire statements. However, comparatively, the teachers’ perception of their ability to create learning opportunities for the development of the competencies of “Valuing Sustainability,” “Problem Framing,” “Adaptability,” and “Political Agency” were lower. The lowest ability beliefs, the lowest interest, and the highest relative cost were observed for the competence of “Political Agency.” Conversely, for the competence of “Collective Action,” teachers’ responses had the highest values.

Regarding the second research question, a Kruskal–Wallis test was performed to investigate the association between motivation and vocational sector for each of the GreenComp competences, as outlined in Table 5. The analysis revealed that there is a statistically significant variation in motivation in relation to vocational sector, specifically for the competences of “Promoting Nature” and “Futures Literacy”.

Table 5 Results of Kruskal–Wallis test between motivation and vocational sector
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As the Kruskal–Wallis test rejected the null hypothesis, it was necessary to conduct multiple comparisons between subgroups (Chalikias et al. 2015) to identify statistically significant differences. The results of these comparisons, as presented in Table 6, revealed that there is a statistically significant difference in the responses of teachers in the “Mechanical Engineering” sector and those in the “Agriculture-Food and Environment” sector (p = 0.000) with regard to the “Promoting Nature” competence, thereby rejecting the null hypothesis at a 1% level of significance. Additionally, the analysis revealed a statistically significant difference between the responses of teachers in the “Mechanical Engineering” sector and those in the “Management-Economy” sector (p = 0.023) with regard to the same competence, rejecting the null hypothesis at a 5% level of significance.

Table 6 Multiple comparisons between subgroups for “Promoting Nature” competence
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With regard to the “Futures Literacy” competence, the results of these comparisons, as presented in Table 7, revealed that there is a statistically significant difference in the responses of teachers from the “Mechanical Engineering” sector and those in the “Agriculture-Food and Environment” sector (p = 0.012), as well as in the responses of teachers in the “Mechanical Engineering” sector and those in the “Management-Economy” sector (p = 0.010), thereby rejecting the null hypothesis at a 5% level of confidence.

Table 7 Multiple comparisons between subgroups for “Futures Literacy” competence
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Regarding the third research question, the Kruskal–Wallis Test revealed (Table 8) that educational experience does not have a statistically significant impact on the teachers’ responses in relation to their motivation to create learning opportunities that develop GreenComp competences for sustainability.

Table 8 Results of Kruskal–Wallis tests between motivation and educational experience
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The results of the Kruskal–Wallis test, as presented in Table 9, indicate that there is a statistically significant relationship between teachers’ training on sustainability issues and their motivation to create learning opportunities that develop the GreenComp competence of “Valuing Sustainability” (p = 0.018).

Table 9 Results of Kruskal–Wallis tests between motivation and training on sustainability issues
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Specifically, teachers with postgraduate training and those who have not received formal training on the subject or have obtained information from other sources reported significantly different levels of motivation.

In relation to experience in innovative pedagogical practices, the results of the analysis (Table 10) indicated that there exists a statistically significant difference in teachers’ responses regarding the “Promoting nature” (p = 0.057) and “Critical thinking” (p = 0.086) competences.

Table 10 Results of Kruskal–Wallis tests between motivation and experience in innovative pedagogical practices
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Discussion

The development of competences for the green transition in students of vocational education is essential for the future of both the European economy and society itself (Council of the European Union 2020). VET teachers are tasked with creating learning opportunities that foster the development of not only green skills, but also broader sustainability competences. The readiness of VET teachers to respond to this role is influenced by several factors, one of which is motivation (UNESCO 2021). According to expectancy-value theory, motivation is shaped by various factors, such as ability beliefs, interest, and relative cost (Wigfield and Eccles 2000). As VET teachers form a heterogeneous professional category (Sytziouki 2022), examining their motivation through a reliable instrument and identifying the factors that influence it can reveal weaknesses and inform specialized support strategies. Considering the importance of educators in sustainability education, research must continue analyzing the potential use of different competence frameworks (Corres et al. 2020). GreenComp is a relatively new competence framework and it is not widely used in research yet. There is a lack of previous studies on the motivation of vocational teachers to create learning opportunities for the green transition in literature; thus, the results of this study are not comparable yet.

The study found that VET teachers demonstrated a high level of motivation to create learning opportunities that develop all sustainability competences in their students. This is a promising result, since high motivation can positively influence achievement behaviors and outcomes (Eccles and Wigfield 2002; Scharenberg et al. 2021). It is notable that comparably, the lowest ability beliefs, the lowest interest, and the highest relative cost were observed for the competence of “Political Agency.” Political Agency is a complex term (Sanchini et al. 2019). As a sustainability competence, political agency is defined as “the capacity to positively influence the collective future, by mobilizing those at political level to take action for change” (Bianchi et al. 2022). But are our education systems willing and capable of nurturing such competence? Maybe it is time to listen to the young activists who engage in school strikes for climate and call for re-imagining and changing education so that future citizens are prepared for engaging with global issues (White et al. 2022).

The sustainability competence “Promoting Nature” necessitates environmental knowledge and an understanding of the relationships and interdependencies between biotic and abiotic factors (Bianchi et al. 2022). Engineering teachers demonstrated significantly different responses regarding their motivation to create learning opportunities that develop this competence in students and it is likely attributed to the basic training they have received. This hypothesis is supported by a report, which suggests that while the education of mechanical engineers in Europe has a tradition of addressing environmental issues, these issues are primarily approached from a technological perspective, rather than in the context of ecosystems (Sánchez Carracedo et al. 2018).

In testing which background elements of teachers are significant for their motivation to teach about sustainable development, the study revealed that the extent of teaching experience does not necessarily play an important role. The effectiveness of teachers in teaching about sustainable development is believed to be associated with their training (UNESCO 2021). However, it is important to note that the study findings indicated a correlation between motivation and teacher training on sustainability issues only for the “Valuing Sustainability” competence. Furthermore, it was found that teachers’ experience in implementing innovative teaching methods is correlated with motivation to create learning opportunities that develop the “Promoting nature” and “Critical thinking” competences exclusively. These results raise further questions that warrant examination. Future research could explore the underlying factors that contribute to these correlations. For instance, it would be interesting to investigate whether postgraduate teacher training providers are primarily focusing on the development of the “Valuing Sustainability” competence. Additionally, it would be valuable to determine if a majority of the implemented innovative teaching practices are centered around the “Promoting Nature” and “Critical Thinking” competences. Based on the overall findings of the study, one might speculate whether the motivation of engineering VET teachers to create learning opportunities that develop the “Promoting Nature” competence could be influenced if they are encouraged to engage in innovative pedagogical practices. These questions should be taken into consideration when formulating policies on VET teacher training.

The current study aimed to create a research tool, based on the GreenComp framework, to examine the motivation of teachers in specific vocational sectors to create learning opportunities for the development of students’ sustainability competences. GreenComp is a recently developed framework that has been adopted by the European Commission as a support tool in education for the Green Transition (Council of the European Union 2022). However, emphasis on sustainability competence in education might present inter-related hazards, such as conceptual confusion and impacts on pedagogy (Vare 2022). Although GreenComp was created by education experts to provide a common and comprehensive understanding of sustainability competences, to avoid the hazards of conceptual confusion, sustainability competences should be further analyzed, to respective knowledge, skills, and attitudes required within the context of the various vocational sectors (Vare 2022). Additionally, the development of relevant and supportive materials would facilitate the work of vocational teachers. Educational policy aiming to effectively support VET teachers in their role for the green transition should consider all three key components of their readiness: skills, motivation, and opportunities. Motivation, being an internal factor, can be influenced by taking into account factors that are correlated with it (Eccles and Wigfield 2002).

It is important to underscore here that our current study distinguishes itself from common practice in the field of sustainability education by focusing on the GreenComp framework which brings together notions of knowingness, skills, attitudes, and behaviors across the three dimensions of sustainable development (the environmental, social, and economic). In this study we developed a novel instrument to tap into the readiness of VET teachers to respond to their role in the green transition. Our results establish this measurement instrument as valid and reliable. Our results can, furthermore, be seen at two levels of interpretation. The first is of a descriptive nature and goes into current educational practices. It describes how VET teachers demonstrated a high level of motivation to create learning opportunities that develop all sustainability competences and skills in their students. The second level of interpretation deals with the exploration of the interaction of vocational teachers with environmental awareness.

Research limitations

In this study, there were several limitations to consider. Firstly, the sample size (N = 173) was small and non-randomized, preventing us to make generalized conclusions about the population of vocational teachers in Greece. Additionally, the study focused on the motivation of teachers to create learning opportunities for sustainable development, while skills and opportunities were considered as independent variables. It was assumed that factors related to opportunities, such as time, support, and resources, were granted by educational authorities. Furthermore, the research only considered certain dimensions of subjective values, specifically interest and relative cost, rather than the full spectrum of the expectancy-value theoretical model of motivation (Wigfield and Eccles 2000). Moreover, due to time constraints, the research was limited to specific vocational sectors, making it impossible to generalize the findings to all teachers of Vocational High Schools in Greece.

Conclusion

The results of the study reveal that the motivation of teachers to develop sustainability competences in students, as reflected in their attitudes and views, is high but varies across the different competences outlined in the GreenComp framework (see Appendix, Table 10). A statistically significant difference was observed in the motivation of teachers from the “Mechanical Engineering” sector for the “Promoting Nature” and “Futures Literacy” competences. Additionally, the results indicate that there is a statistically significant correlation between teachers’ motivation and their training on sustainability issues, as well as their experience in innovative pedagogical practices. However, no statistically significant correlation was found between teachers’ motivation and their educational experience. Since targeted needs analyses can improve the professional development of VET teachers (Cedefop 2022), these findings suggest that professional development programs for vocational teachers, specifically focused on the green transition, would be beneficial in addressing the needs that derive from the results. Further research in representative samples, examining the reasons why certain variables are found to be correlated, could aid in shaping educational policy and supporting the role of vocational teachers in the green transition.

The GreenComp framework serves as a versatile and suitable research tool for informing policy regarding the readiness of VET teachers to create learning opportunities for the green transition. By utilizing the official Greek translation of the framework, the questionnaire items were designed to include detailed descriptors for each sustainability competence. This approach aimed to establish a shared understanding among teachers of sustainability competences and their relevance to green transition education. Consequently, the content validity of the tool as a research instrument was enhanced (Drost 2011). The GreenComp framework has the potential to be embraced by educational policy bodies and gain widespread recognition within the educational community. It can serve as the basis for enhancing the readiness of VET teachers in creating learning opportunities for the green transition, while maintaining a critical perspective on its application. However, as mentioned by Vare (2022), there are questions regarding the practical implementation of a sustainability competence framework in authentic educational settings. Educators will also face challenges primarily related to the outcomes and assessments, as highlighted by Farioli et al. (2022).

The present study provides a theoretical and empirical basis for future research. The GreenComp framework can be applied to evaluate the effectiveness of training programs by assessing participants’ ability beliefs, interest, and relative cost before and after the training. It can also be used in the design and implementation of new curricula, to improve the effectiveness of VET in contributing to the green transition. Additionally, future research, combining GreenComp and EntreComp frameworks, in examining the readiness of VET teachers for green entrepreneurship education could also yield valuable insights.