Background

Thriving and growing in life are generally thought to be aspects of Human flourishing (VanderWeele et al., 2019). However, different scientists have various ideas about what it means to be thriving, but they all agree that happiness, satisfaction with life, and good emotions constitute the essential components for flourishing (Weziak-Bialowolska et al., 2021). Countries all over the world are achieving great progress in economic development as conventionally measured; yet along the way succumb to new crises of obesity, smoking, diabetes, depression, and other ills of modern life which goes a long way to hamper on human flourishing. These contradictions were earlier earmarked by some of humanity’s greatest sages including Aristotle and Buddha (Chauhan, 2012). The sages reiterated the fact that material gain alone cannot fulfill our deepest needs so, must be harnessed to promote the end of suffering, social justice, and the attainment of happiness (Chauhan, 2012).

Well-being is universally known but few may truly understand the impact of well-being on everyday life. Some may view well-being very simply as indicative of happiness and life satisfaction. Others may be unaware of the impact of well-being on health. The World Health Organization defines positive mental health as a state of well-being in which the individual realizes their own abilities, can cope with normal stresses of life, can work productively and fruitfully, and is able to make a contribution to their community (WHO, 2018). Societies that value and enhance the well-being and happiness of its people are usually psychologically and economically more stable than those that do not (Livingston et al., 2022).

Human flourishing is an indispensable appendage of growth and success in every life domain (Laumakis, 2021; Maccarini & Maccarini, 2019). The absence of this breeds failure and unhappiness. What constitutes flourishing across the life span may vary for the different age brackets. However, the impediments to human flourishing within any given community could also be as a result of many other factors. The conceptual relations concerning the extent to which communal well-being is a constitutive component of individual well-being might well be stronger in collectivist societies than in individualist societies (Suh et al., 1998). A study conducted in the Netherlands found that the highest percentage of flourishers were in the age category of 18–25 years, suggesting that higher education and female gender are significantly related to flourishing (Schotanus-Dijkstra, et al., 2016). There seems to be an age difference regarding the probability of flourishing which suggests that human flourishing is experienced differently over life. VanderWeele (2017) defined human flourishing as a complete well-being in which all aspects of life are good. Though VanderWeele (2017) conceptualized human flourishing as a complete well-being, he proposes four major pathways (work, family, education, and religion) which constitutes one’s happiness and life satisfaction, mental and physical health, meaning and purpose, character and virtue, close social relationship, and financial and material responsibility. Levin (2020) also proposed a model on human flourishing that consists six dimensions including integrity (affirmation and interconnectedness of all life), holism, other regard altruism (selfless concern for the well-being of others), virtuousness (acting in accordance with moral codes), actualization (inner growth self-improvement, moral development), and positive affect (mood elevating feelings). According to Willlen et al. (2021), flourishing is defined in universal terms rather informed by culture and affected by social, political, and economic factors that differ from person to person, and from community to community. The term flourishing was used by ancient philosophers like Aristotle who argued that everything we do is to achieve happiness, or the “good life” which is achieved through integrating virtue, wisdom, and moral strength (Jankowski et al., 2020; Crisp, 2014). However, over the years, the word happiness has been overused to the point that it does not hold the same meaning as it used to. Research has shown a growing epidemic of psychological or mental illness within family sectors, workplaces ranging from anxiety, depression, and other stress-related sickness that affect human being’s tendency to thrive (Lee, 2020; Jones‐Rincon, & Howard, 2019; van Steijn et al., 2019). This study, thus, seeks to understand some of the factors that impede human flourishing within 6 African countries.

Literature Review

For someone to be able to flourish, the person should be functioning in a positive manner and experiencing high levels of hedonic and eudaimic well-being which refer to subjective and emotional well-being and psychological and social well-being (Keyes, 2010; Schotanus-Dijkstra, 2016). Additionally, adults who are flourishing strive from having an increased motivation to work, miss fewer workdays, and have the lowest incidence of chronic physical disease and conditions (Keyes, 2010). Persons who experienced situations other than completely positive mental health, scored higher in impairment and disability and have an increased probability of all-cause mortality which could be considered as impediments to human flourishing (Keyes & Simoes, 2012) for instance, lack of security (Daemen, 2024) and economic related job insecurity (van Dam et al., 2020). Previous studies found factors that hinder a person from flourishing such as job social support, mental health, and mindfulness (Agenor et al., 2017, Vickers, 2017, Baiden & Fuller‐Thomson, 2016). Another study among young Chinese adults indicated that adverse childhood experiences such as maltreatment, household violence, and emotional neglect was associated with low level of flourishing (Wang, 2022). Similarly, Felitti et al. (2019) stated that adverse childhood experiences such as abuse neglect and household problem before an age of 18 influence flourishing. If a child also grows in an unsafe and insecure environment, he/she may experience early childhood adversity that hinders flourishing (Shonkof, 2012). For instance, children who experience one adverse early childhood experience are less likely to flourish as compared to children with no adverse childhood experience (Kwong & Hayes, 2017).

The family and work can either foster or impede human flourishing (VanderWeele, 2017). The nature of family structure and marriage determines one’s tendency to flourish. Divorce for example has an adverse effect on human flourishing (Williams, (2003). Considering work and employment as pathways to human flourishing, lack of employment poses an impediment to human flourishing since it results to poverty and the inability to afford the basic needs of livelihood. According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics (2015) approximately 81% of the US civilian non institutionalized population aged 25–54 is employed, including about 88% of men and 73% of women. McKee-Ryan et al., (2005) reported that reemployment of the unemployed resulted in improvement in life satisfaction, and in self-reported physical health and mental health, and further indicates that loss of a job results in reductions in mental health and in life satisfaction. Whereas, interventions to provide employment were found, in randomized trials, to have effects on quality of life, better mental health, and fewer hospitalizations, even among those with severe mental problems (Hoffmann, et al., 2014 and Van Rijn, et al., 2016). Economic problem and living in economically challenged situation, discrimination, bullying, and witnessing neighborhood violence can hamper flourishing (Bethell, et al., 2017).

Problem Statement

As stated in the background, there are abundant previous studies on conceptualization and pathways of human flourishing. In the developed world. Only very few studies on flourishing have been conducted in Africa; those that have been done are mostly in Southern Africa (see Wilson Fadiji et al., 2023; Cele et al., 2021; Rothmann, 2013; Van Zyl & Rothmann, 2012). Even the extant literature is primarily concerned with the flourishing of individuals within various contexts, including work (Rothmann, 2013), education (Van Zyl & Rothmann, 2012), and health (Wilson Fadiji et al., 2023) settings. However, very little has been done on factors that hinder human flourishing. Social, economic, and cultural factors that impede human flourishing in the majority world are yet to be explored. The current study, therefore, aims to explore impediments of flourishing in childhood, adolescence, and adulthood in six African countries: Cameroon, Ethiopia, Uganda, Tanzania, Ghana, and Kenya.

Research Questions

  1. 1.

    What social, economic, and cultural factors hinder human flourishing during childhood?

  2. 2.

    What social, economic, and cultural factors impede human flourishing during adolescence?

  3. 3.

    What social, economic, and cultural factors hinder human flourishing during adulthood?

  4. 4.

    Which social, economic, and cultural factors impede human flourishing more across the stages (childhood, adolescence, and adulthood)?

Methods

Study Sites

The study was conducted in six African countries: Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania, Ethiopia, Cameroon, and Ghana. Specifically, the study in these countries was limited to multigenerational families that include communities from the of rural Turkana Marachi and Eteso in Kenya, the Amhara in Ethiopia, the Nso and Nweh in Cameroon, the Akan-in Ghana, the Bantu and Nilo Hamites in Uganda and the Sukuma -in Tanzania. The focus on multigenerational families was meant to gain the trend of impediments across the life span given that such families encompass all the age categories (children, adolescents, and adults). Also, the communal nature and strong extended family system peculiar in Africa made the multigenerational family approach ideal for the study.

Design

This study follows a qualitative method with the phenomenology study design to describe and interpret the lived experiences of participants about impediments of flourishing. Phenomenological design allows for deep understanding of the experiences of several individuals on a common phenomenon (Creswell, 2007). The virgin nature of research on HF in the majority world required this design as it captured the voices of both the literate and illiterate members of the communities.

Participants

Two hundred and seventy-seven (277) children, adolescents, and adults selected in six Africa countries (Kenya, Ethiopia, Uganda, Tanzania, Cameroon, and Ghana) participated in the study. Out of the total 277 participants, 128 (46.2%) were males whereas 149 (53.8%) were females. The average age of participants was 30.68. Of the total participants, 78 were children, 61 were adolescents, and 138 were adults.

The participants were selected through purposive sampling from multi ethnic and multi lingual groups including Amhara (n = 42), Nilotic (n = 88) Nilo hamites (n = 23) Bantu (n = 23 Akan (n = 20) Ewe (n = 12) Nweh (n = 26) Nso (n = 26) Sukuma (n = 21). Coming to religion, 215 (77.6%) were Christians, 40 (14.4%) were Muslims, and the rest 22 (7.9%) were traditional religion followers. Regarding to marital status, 156 (56.3%), 96 (34.7%), 11(4%), and 14 (5.1%) were single, married, divorced, and widow, respectively. When we see their marital structure, of the total 161 reproductive participants, 81 (50.31%) were monogamous, and the other 80 (49.69%) were polygamous. The average number of children in a household was 2.6 with a maximum number of 9. Coming to place of residence, 120 (43.3%) were urban dwellers, 143 (51.6%) were from rural areas, and the other 14 (5.1%) were from semi-urban areas. Finally, 19 (6.9%) participants attended college level education, 46 (16.6%) accomplished secondary school education, and 142 (51.3%) completed primary school education. However, 64 (23.1%) were illiterate.

Data Collection Tools

Semi-structured interviews and focus group discussion were used to collect qualitative data about participants’ conceptualization of the impediments to human flourishing. The interview and focus group discussion contained 5 questions that touched on VanderWheele’s (2017) indicators of human flourishing. Participants were asked to describe activities, persons, and situations that reduced happiness of their family, their physical and mental health, their personal and family satisfaction, their worth and that of their family on earth, their sense of purpose and that of their families. Sample questions include: (1) Can you describe activities and situations that reduced your family’s happiness? (2) Can you describe activities or situations that reduce you family’s worth? (3) Can you describe activities and situations that reduce your physical and mental health? The respondents were probed to identify and explain those specific activities, persons, and situations that impeded flourishing. The instrument was translated for use with children, adolescents, and adults in multi-generational families in the six different countries and sites represented in this study; Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania, Ethiopia, Cameroon, and Ghana. To maintain the content validity of the instruments at the conceptual level in the different communities of the 6 African countries, (Beaton et al., 2000) five step translation procedures was adopted. The tools were first translated from English to the different local languages either by bilingual translators who were native speakers and versed in English (original language) or translators who understood the concepts and purpose of the study alongside a native translator who had no clue about the research. Secondly, some nuances and inconsistencies in words like “flourishing” and phrases such as “life satisfaction” between English and the local languages were identified and synthesized. Thirdly, a back translation of the tool from the native languages to English was done to strengthen its consistency and validity. Fourthly, an expert committee composed of the researchers and all the translators met to critically assess the original tool, different translations, inconsistencies, and rationale for earlier decisions. The committee made critical decisions to ensure equivalence (semantic, idiomatic, experiential, and conceptual) was achieved between the English version and that of the natives in all the African communities involved. Finally, the tool was pretested to ensure the translated version still retained its equivalence in an applied situation.

Data Collection Procedures

Data collection took place between November 2021 and March 2023. Participants gave consent to take part in the study. For children and adolescents apart from the parents’ consent they gave their assent to be involved in the study. Research assistants who spoke local languages had been trained on conducting the FGDs. The participants were first grouped according to gender, and then intensively engaged in focus group discussions using the same set of questions used for the interview. Thirty-six focus group conversations were held in six African nations with adults, adolescents, and children of both sexes. Since male domination is frequently anticipated and inevitable in Africa, the discussion with female groups was conducted differently from the one with male groups to allow for the unfettered participation and capturing of the female voices. The focus group discussion sessions lasted between 45 min and 2 h. Each focus group was made up of between 6 and 8 participants.

Data Analysis

The researchers based in Cameroon, Ethiopia, and Kenya and the assistant researchers from Tanzania, Uganda, and Ghana repeatedly listened to the audio recordings to get familiar with the collected data as well as read and re-read the transcripts. Then, we transcribed the recordings. The local transcripts were translated into English. Then, we generated codes through open coding and organized the codes into themes based on the purpose of the study.

Trustworthiness of the Study

We verified the study’s credibility by member-checking to ensure trustworthiness. Participants were invited to offer input on the findings to verify that their voices were correctly interpreted. A series of monthly virtual meetings were conducted to ensure reflexivity of researchers and to prevent possible bias in data interpretation.

Results

Impediments to human flourishing in six Africa countries has been examined across the life span from childhood, adolescence, and adulthood. Data on children mostly emerged from the Marahi and Eteso of Kenya and the Sukuma of Tanzania. For adolescents and early adults, the data stemmed mostly from the Bantu and Nilo Hamites of Uganda, the Turkana of Kenya and the Amhara of Ethopia. Majority of the adult perspective stemmed from the Nso and Nweh of Cameroon and the Akan of Ghana. From the thematic analysis, impediments to flourishing that emerged from the findings across the life span where clustered around 6 themes: (a) death, (b) selfishness, (c) practice of immoral or undesirable behavior such as theft, (d) conflict, (e) ill health, and (f) poverty. However, some impediments identified were peculiar to some age groups. Lack of sufficient play time for example stemmed only from the children category while marriage problems emerged just from the adult category as illustrated in Table 1. We made frequency comparison across age groups for the other major impediments to flourishing to explore intensity of the major impediment factor through the life span.

Table 1 Frequency on major impediments of flourishing across three developmental stages
Full size table

The most frequently mentioned obstacle to flourishing was immoral or unethical behavior. The top three factors that hindered people from thriving were immoral conduct, conflict, and death, respectively. The loss of a family member or loved one was cited by 17 participants as a barrier to human flourishing. Adolescent participants were more likely than adults or children to cite death as a barrier to living a fulfilling life. Fifteen individuals identified poverty as an impediment to flourishing. Of them, greater numbers of adults said that being poor prevented them from thriving. Similarly, twenty people identified conflict as another barrier, and many of them were adults.

In comparison to the number of adolescent and child participants, the number of adult participants who believe that immoral behavior to buffering from flourishing was high. Another factor mentioned as limiting flourishing was health issues. Out of the fifteen individuals who identified poor health as a barrier to flourishing, the majority were adults. Finally, a small number of respondents witnessed selfishness as an impediment to thriving.

The following section presents each impeding factor along with illustrative quotes taken from communities from Cameroon, Ethiopia, Kenya, Tanzania, Ghana, and Uganda.

Death

African people across the life span saw the death of a loved one as one of the things that impedes flourishing. Death was perceived as something that made people feel sad and question the meaning of life. This is reflected in the words of some adults among the Nso of Cameroon, Amhara of Ethiopia, and the Surkama of Tanzania who said:

The day my aunt died was the day I felt life had lost its meaning (adult, Nso Cameroon).

My father’s death was a sorrow for our home. Because he helps and manages his family (adolescent, Amhara of Ethiopia).

The grieved are always obsessed with grief of losing their dear one thus losing interest to work which affects the level of their development (adult, Surkama Tanzania).

Similarly, the sadness death brings is captured in children and adolescent voices as reflected in the typical responses below.

The death of my parent made me sad. I hate funerals (child Eteso, Kenya)

The death of my father and friend made me cry and feel lonely (adolescent, adolescent, Bantu, Uganda )

Mourning or bereavement events affect development including taking away the person’s peace and happiness (child, Sukuma Tanzania)

Poverty

Poverty as an impediment to human flourishing in Africa as derived from the findings means not having sufficient food and inability to cater for children’s basic needs such as payment of school fees. Lack of physiological needs specifically food was considered a hindrance to human flourishing across the lifespan. While children and adolescents saw the lack of food and money to cater for their school needs as a joy usurper, the adults had the same view and in addition felt more worried about not being able to provide food for their children. These are reflected in the following quotations across the life span.

Not eating good food and failure to eat a balanced diet makes me angry (child, Etso, Kenya).

When I don’t have enough food to eat and also when I don’t have all my books, I am not happy (child, Eteso, Kenya)).

What reduces happiness at home is when there is no food and also no animals. People will not look happy in such times (adult, Turkana of Kenya).

Like us who still have children at school, school fees debts make us over think (adults, Nso, Cameroon)

For a long time now, we have been in darkness due to inability to pay accrued electricity bills which has piled up or risen up to over Three Thousand Ghana Cedis (Ghȼ3,000.00). For that matter, personally, I have resorted to using old time type of lantern, made of Can filled with red oil and a trip of cloth connected, to lit light (Akan, Ghana).

Selfishness

Selfishness from the data is an art of not sharing or supporting others and also not being receptive. This is one of the issues raised by Africans across the lifespan considered to hinder human flourishing. The art or sharing in the joy and pain of one another as well as supporting each order is a cardinal value embedded in the African culture as reflected in the Ubuntu philosophy “I am because we are, since we are, therefore I am” and the Ujamaa system of brotherhood. Going against this virtue is unacceptable and considered a hindrance to happiness. The following quotations are typical responses reflecting participants’ voices on selfishness as an impediment to human flourishing across the life span.

When friends deny me their items, I feel bad (child, Bantu Uganda).

Failure to help your neighbour or others and failure to attend burials makes people see you as a bad person (adolescence, Bantu Uganda)

What in my understanding mostly brings unhappiness in the family is when those men who had gone to raid come back with animals but decide not to share among other family members as the cultural way of doing it (adult, Turkana Kenya)

A co-wife was sent away because she gave food privately to her own son where feeding was communal and had a time table where each mother had days to feed all the children (adult Nweh, Cameroon)

Conflict

Conflict as stemmed from the data refers to family disputes and disagreement between parents and other community members. Conflict globally is an indispensable attribute of human socialization and interaction. Africa is not left out in this as it is common to see family members and other people in a community disagree which sometime lead to fighting and quarreling. Conflict breeds disunity and perpetuates sadness which impedes human flourishing across the lifespan as reflected in the following participants voices.

When mum and dad quarrel, we feel sad (child, Amhara Ethiopia).

If a family has members that abuse others, we all feel ashamed (adolescents, Bantu of Uganda).

Seizure of property (land, houses, children) from widows causes sadness and prolonged conflict among family members (adult, Nweh Cameroon).

When co wives in polygamous homes don’t respect each other and don’t collaborate, there is constant quarreling and fighting that creates tension and sadness (adult, Nweh Cameroon)

Immoral Behavior

Immoral behavior reflects the exhibition of bad and unacceptable behaviors such as theft, unfairness, disrespect, and drug abuse. These bad behaviors were earmarked as things that impede human flourishing in Africa. Behaviors like theft, and disrespect were considered as actions that bring shame and disgrace to the entire family. A family can be rejected by the entire community just because of an immoral act say theft or gross disrespect exhibited by one of the family members. Theft is unacceptable and keeps people frightened. The following quotes captures these from the participants’ voices.

Thieves who come at night keep me frightened. Also, I feel very bad when friends snatch my things at school (child, Turkana of Kenya).

The use of drugs has wrecked the lives of many youth who are the main source of manpower towards development in the community (adolescents Sukama, Tanzania).

Someone who has bad manners and does not greet people is not loved by others (adolescents Sukama, Tanzania).

What l remember about what seemed to reduce the worth of the family is when the son of my brother decided to embrace theft of animals from other families. They took most of our animals to pay for those animals they stole and that thing really destroyed the worth and the name of our family (adult, Nso, Cameroon).

Ill Health

Ill health here reflects poor physical and socio-emotional well-being. Africans across the lifespan saw ill health as a factor that impedes their tendency to flourish. They consider health as wealth and the absence of health as a state that makes man unable to pursue all the other things in life that can bring happiness. When a family member is found ill especially when diagnosed with a terminal disease, the whole family is demoralized. How ill health impedes human flourishing across the life span is reflected in the following quotes from the participants.

When one is sick, he or she cannot go to school or can’t go to work with us that causes us not to reach our target (Adolescent, Sukama Tanzania).

When a problem like sickness enters the family everyone feels bad (adolescent, Nilo Hamites Uganda).

Sickness is a major factor that prevents us from reaching our goals. If you are healthy, you have everything in life. However, if you are sick, you may not be able to do any meaningful work. So, I think sickness is a major factor that prevents us from reaching our goals (adult, Nso Cameroon).

Diseases like HIV, cancer, diabetes, blood pressure marasmus, malaria and stroke affects the family progress a lot (adult, Nso Cameroon).

Marriage Problem

Apart from the abovementioned impediments, challenges in marriage emerged strongly as a hindrance to human flourishing. Challenges in marriage as earmarked from the data refers to separation of husband and wife, adultery and childlessness. These were peculiar among the adult folk and mentioned to be typical causes of unhappiness. With regards to difficulties in marriage, a woman among the Nilo Hamites of Uganda explained how she became frustrated and unhappy as a result of battery from the husband as reflected in the following quote.

Beatings and molestations severally, even though I took heart to think that there could be a change. Finally, I could not bear the pains any longer, so, I left the marital home before the man later passed on (adult, Nilo Hamites of Uganda).

Similarly, when the husband does not care about expenditures of the family, it brings frustration to the wife. An adolescent participant from Amhara of Ethiopia expressed her feelings as follows:

Conflict between my mother and father often occur. One day I saw my mother in a sorrowful state because my father was not willing to give her money for a transport when she wanted to go to the village (adolescent, Amhara of Ethiopia).

With regards to separation in marriage, most adults mentioned that separation from their partners made them lonely and sad. Stress from separation appear to be stronger in men than women as most men expressed the dissatisfaction and frustration they face when their women separate from them as reflected in the following typical responses.

The wife I married in church divorced me. Prior to being a traditional chief, I was a Christian. After this divorce I thought the world was closing on me (adult, Nso of Cameroon).

It hurts when wives abandon their men after being educated/empowered by the men (adult men, Nweh Cameroon).

Married women leave behind husband to travel abroad (adult men, Nweh Cameroon).

Men just like women saw adultery as something that causes pain as reflected in a man’s response when asked the question “what makes you unhappy?” and he said “When another man wants my wife.” Men considered “taking other’s wives” as a threat to their ego and well-being. Childlessness in marriage was seen as a curse that makes the families involve unhappy. Africans perceive marriage more as a unit of procreation in continuation of the family lineage. When this expectation is not met from a couple, both families remain worried as depicted in the following typical response.

Getting married and not having children keeps the couple and the entire family worried ((adult, Akan Ghana).

Lack of Sufficient Play Time

It was realized from the findings that play is one of the key things that made African children happy. Having the freedom, space, and tools to play was fun to the children and lack of such appear to impede their happiness as captured in the following response of child from the Machi of Kenya.

Not having exercises or time to play with my friends makes me bored and sad.

Generally, what impedes HF across the lifespan in Africa revolves around selfishness, death, conflict, poverty, ill health, and the practice of immoral or undesirable behaviors such as theft and disrespect of elders.

Discussion

The impediments to human flourishing across the life span as reflected in the findings fall in line with the different pathways VanderWeele (2017) identified—family, work, education, and religious community. We identified major factors that are similar to all of the communities in the six African nations (Cameroon, Ethiopia, Kenya, Ghana, Uganda, and Tanzania) that impact human flourishing. These include selfishness, immoral behavior, poverty, death, and poor health. The three main obstacles to human flourishing are conflict, immoral conduct, and the loss of a loved one or family member. When we look at the severity of impeding circumstances across age groups, children perceive immoral behavior, conflict, and death as barriers to their potential to flourish. However, adolescents believe that the biggest obstacles to a person’s ability to grow, prosper, happiness, life satisfaction, and pleasant emotions are immoral behavior, death, and poverty. The factors that inhibited adults from flourishing were conflict, immoral behaviors, and health issues. These suggest that the barriers to thriving differ depending on age.

More specifically, our study indicated that death or the loss of a loved one as well as marriage challenges are impediments closely tied to the family. For humans to flourish they need to find themselves in one form of family life or the other and if one of these family members in no more, it impedes human flourishing. The same is for marriage which also occurs within the family context. When marriage comes to an end either by divorce or death, it equally impedes human flourishing (Finnis, 2008). Marriage and family thus appear to be an important pathway to flourishing VanderWeele (2017). However, VanderWeele (2017) did not see the family as an impediment to human flourishing. The African families are extended to even members of a tribe and are deeply interconnected. Death and challenges in marriage impedes not only the flourishing of the nuclear family concerned but all the extended connections as well. Marriage in Africa is not considered a union between two persons (a man and a woman) but a union between two families. Marriage is valuable and perceived as a pathway to human flourishing but challenges associated with it such as divorce or separation, not having a child and not getting married as an adult impedes the flourishing of both families and love ones (Walker & Teetsel, 2015). Also, families disintegrated by death or divorce can create an unsafe and insecure environment for a child exposing him or her to childhood adversity that hinders flourishing (Shonkof, 2012).

Conflict, immoral behavior, and selfishness as impediments to human flourishing across the life span in Africa are reflected in VanderWeele (2017) perception of character, virtue, and close social relationship as indicators to human flourishing. Being of good character and in close relationship with others were earmarked as valuable in the African context. When family and community members are in conflict, there is tension which impedes flourishing. One who does not greet people, support, and share with others in moments of joy and pain is considered bad. Relating well with others and exhibiting good behavior as a pathway to flourishing in Africa is not only limited to the family, work place, and religious community as VanderWeele (2017) mentioned but extends to the entire community. Not extending a hand to the broader community such as attending and contributing in funerals and other community events is considered evil and an impediment to flourishing. Just as reflected in Ujamaa and the Ubuntu Philosophy, Africans will flourish if they extend the love they have for their brothers to the extended family and entire community (Ewuoso & Hall, 2019). Going against African solidarity values is thus unaccepted and impedes flourishing. One who does this is considered wicked and a deviant. Revitalizing African cultural values—respect, solidarity, honesty, and peaceful living—are essential in enhancing flourishing in the majority world. This need had been echoed by African Philosophers. Nkrumah (1965) for instance posited that the kind of citizen Africa needs to thrive is “a man who submerges self in service to the nation and mankind, abhors greed, and detests vanity, whose humility is his strength and whose integrity is his greatness.” Cesaire (1972) similarly underscored the need for Africans to go back to the fraternity they had in the olden days.

Moreover, the feeling of disconnection, loneliness, and unhappiness that stems up in Africans across the life span when relationships between love ones are strained is not peculiar to the African situation. Elements such as integrity (affirmation and interconnectedness of all life) and altruism (selfless concern for the well-being of others) had been echoed in Lewin’s (2020) model as pathways to flourishing. Engagement in immoral behavior like stealing that impedes human flourishing in Africa across the life span is also consistent with Levin (2020) dimension of virtuousness (acting in accordance with moral codes) as a pathway to flourishing. Not living in accordance with the moral code in African communities is deviant, destabilizes and usurps happiness. The difference with the African situation is that the effects of immoral behavior are collective. When a person steals or disrespects elders, the family and sometimes the community’s name is soiled. The disgrace from an individual’s act is heavily felt by the entire family and community which impedes flourishing not only for the concerned but the family and community as well. The consequences of such acts are enormous. From people rejecting intermarriages to children from such families and communities to lack of mutual trust.

Another very important impediment to human flourishing was poverty. Similarly, flourishing components including happiness decreases when there are economic constraints (Easterlin et al., 2010). Africans across the life span clearly identified the lack of basic physiological needs of livelihood as a barrier to human flourishing. This aligns with the studies of McKee-Ryan et al. (2005), Hoffmann et al. (2014), and Van Rijn et al. (2016) who argued that without work, family needs cannot be catered for and the few who have these jobs and can put food on their tables sometimes become selfish and self-centered. Similarly, the findings are also consistent with VanderWeele (2017) perception that work or employment can enhance happiness and life satisfaction, mental and physical health, meaning and purpose, character and virtue, financial and material responsibility. The absence of work or employment therefore breeds poverty that impedes flourishing. Most African children and adolescents as reflected in the findings said their most unhappy moments were when they either did not have food to eat, did not eat well or did not have their basic school needs. Adults similarly said they felt bad and unhappy when they do not have enough money to pay bills, feed and provide basic needs for their children. Contrarily to the minority world, poverty seems to have a greater toll on human flourishing in the majority world given its higher unemployment and dependency rates.

Limitations

This study was purely qualitative thus limited to very few participants from multigenerational families. Conducting a similar study through a survey that covers a larger and more representative sample can be more informative.

Conclusion

This paper examines the impediments to human flourishing in Africa across the life span. From a thematic analysis on qualitative data collected form 6 African countries, it was found that conflict, death, selfishness, poverty, and immoral behavior and ill health impede human flourishing across the life span. Although these impeding factors commonly affect children, adolescents, and adults from flourishing, the intensity of influence somewhat varies across age groups. However, other impediments such as challenges in marriage were peculiar only for the adult folk and lack of play time just for children.

However, the uniqueness in the African case is reflected in the interconnected nature that impeding factors to human flourishing have on the family and community. Just as echoed in the Ubuntu adage “I am because we are, since we are, therefore I am,” when an individual is not flourishing as a result of strained relationship, poverty, ill health, or bad character such as selfishness, disrespect, or theft, it is felt heavily by others and also impedes the flourishing of family and community members. From the literature reviewed, very little has been written on the impediments to human flourishing thus deserves some attention. Even though some impediments are implicit in existing literature on pathways, it is not all inclusive. Moreover, it is vital to explore more in to human flourishing in the African context using the quantitative and other mixed method designs given that the phenomenon is still very virgin in terms of scientific exploration in this context.

Implication

Some of the impediments of human Flourishing cut across the lifespan while some others are more specific to some age groups. This study adds new information on human flourishing existing data and literature on impediments to human flourishing in the African context given that very little has been done in this line. Children value their play time and so for children to flourish they will need time to play with friends.

Recommendations

Considering that impediments are hindrance to human flourishing, there is need for interventions to be carried out in African communities to help persons and communities do away with or manage some of the factors that impede their flourishing. For example with regards to poverty, parents and adults in the community can be trained to create jobs or engage in successful income generating activities that can help them raise sufficient funds to cater for their needs and those of their children. With regards to conflict and marriage challenges, the people can be trained on peaceful living strategies with others as well as techniques to enhance better marriages. To decrease interpersonal conflict, foster peaceful coexistence in communities, and bring forth fruitful dialog, the governments of all six countries should combine contemporary conflict resolution techniques with indigenous African institutions such as Ubuntu (“I am because we are”) and Utu (“a person is a person through other persons”). In response to death as an impediment, an awareness of its inevitable nature and effective strategies to manage grief and bereavement in a way that does not affect mental health needs to be raised. Thus, providing psychosocial treatments is crucial to reducing the negative effects of sadness and grief on children, adults, and adolescents’ health and well-being. With regards to lack of play time that impedes children’s flourishing, an intervention that makes provision for culturally relative recreational facilities and playgrounds for children should be valuable. Successful interventions like the Families Matter Program (FMP) and the Furaha Teens (local name for parenting for lifelong health for parents and children) (Martin et al., 2021) which promotes positive parenting and effective parent–child communication, reduce family conflict, hash discipline and stress in Tanzania can be scaled in other African communities. Parents, and teachers, need to be informed of the relevance of play to the children’s development and happiness so they can allocate play time for them.